“Becoming Your Own Psychologist”: Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPSs) for Mood and Anxiety Disorder Self-Medication
Tayler Holborn, Fabrizio Schifano, Emma Smith, Paolo Deluca
Psychoactives August 20, 2025 Peer reviewed DOI: 10.3390/psychoactives4030028 via OpenAlex
Summary
Individuals are increasingly using Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) like bromazolam and etizolam to self-medicate for depression and anxiety, often perceiving these substances as more effective than conventional treatments. A survey of 274 respondents revealed themes such as chronic treatment-resistant depression, attempts to mimic existing therapies, high pharmacological knowledge among users, and challenges in managing benzodiazepine use. The findings underscore the need for affordable treatment options for mental health issues.
Study at a glance
| Design | observational cohort |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 274 |
| Population | individuals using Novel Psychoactive Substances for self-medication |
| Key finding | Individuals perceived self-medication with NPS to be more effective than conventional treatment. |
Abstract
Numerous individuals suffer from mental health issues including depression and anxiety, resulting in substantial societal burden. Data suggests individuals are choosing to self-medicate with Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS); however, this phenomenon is poorly understood. We aimed to investigate which NPS are being used to self-medicate, evaluate their perceived effectiveness and examine influencing factors. Data from respondents (n = 274) (Mean Age [SD] = 29.8 ± 9.1, Male = 71%, Female = 18%, non-binary 5%) were collected via an online survey, with five participants (male = 2; nonbinary = 3) undertaking further semi-structured interviews and the data examined using a Framework analysis. NPS used included bromazolam, etizolam, clonazolam, 1P-LSD and 2-FDCK. Individuals perceived self-medication to be more effective than conventional treatment (p < 0.001). A Framework analysis identified the following themes surrounding mood and anxiety disorder self-medication: (1) depression being chronic, treatment resistant and often comorbid; (2) individuals attempting to mimic existing treatments; (3) individuals having high levels of pharmacological knowledge; (4) difficulties in controlling benzodiazepine self-medication. This study brings important insight into self-medication practices with NPSs, adding to data demonstrating an increase in bromazolam use. Data suggests self-medication follows conventional treatment and, therefore, we outline the importance of affordable emerging treatment options for depression and anxiety.