Disturbances of Embodiment in Schizophrenia and Psychosis: A Systematic Review of Rubber Hand Illusion Research
Open MIND July 2, 2026 Keith R. Laws, Paul M. Jenkinson, Daniel Fray et al.
Disturbances in the sense of self, agency, and bodily ownership are considered core features of schizophrenia. The Rubber Hand Illusion (RHI) is a widely used experimental paradigm to investigate bodily self-consciousness, where participants experience ownership over a rubber hand under multisensory stimulation. Since first applied to schizophrenia in 2003, studies have examined whether individuals with schizophrenia show altered susceptibility to the illusion, but findings have become increasingly heterogeneous due to differences in paradigms, outcome measures, and patient samples. A previous small meta-analysis found little evidence for a body ownership deficit, but the evidence base has expanded. This review synthesizes available evidence on embodiment and action in schizophrenia using RHI paradigms, quantifying effects and examining differences by paradigm type, outcome measure, and symptom profile.