Rediscovering MDMA (ecstasy): the role of the American chemist Alexander T. Shulgin

Alexander Shulgin is often called the 'father' of MDMA, but a re-assessment of his original publications and laboratory notebook shows he did not synthesize or try MDMA in 1965 as his book PIHKAL suggests. He learned of its special effects in the mid-1970s, re-synthesized it, and first tried it in September 1976. In 1977 he gave MDMA to psychotherapist Leo Zeff, who then introduced it to other therapists. Shulgin also co-authored the first paper on MDMA's pharmacological action in humans in 1978. These contributions explain why he is sometimes erroneously called the 'father' of MDMA, though he was not the first to synthesize it.

Study at a glance

Abstract

ABSTRACTAims Alexander T. Shulgin is widely thought of as the ‘father’ of +/−3,4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This paper re‐assesses his role in the modern history of this drug.Methods We analysed systematically Shulgin's original publications on MDMA, his publications on the history of MDMA and his laboratory notebook.Results According to Shulgin's book PIHKAL (1991), he synthesized MDMA in 1965, but did not try it. In the 1960s Shulgin also synthesized MDMA‐related compounds such as 3,4‐methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3‐methoxy‐4,5‐methylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA) and 3,4‐methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE), but this had no impact on his rediscovery of MDMA. In the mid‐1970s Shulgin learned of a ‘special effect’ caused by MDMA, whereupon he re‐synthesized it and tried it himself in September 1976, as confirmed by his laboratory notebook. In 1977 he gave MDMA to Leo Zeff PhD, who used it as an adjunct to psychotherapy and introduced it to other psychotherapists.Conclusion Shulgin was not the first to synthesize MDMA, but he played an important role in its history. It seems plausible that he was so impressed by its effects that he introduced it to psychotherapist Zeff in 1977. This, and the fact that in 1978 he published with David Nichols the first paper on the pharmacological action of MDMA in humans, explains why Shulgin is sometimes (erroneously) called the ‘father’ of MDMA.