The long roots of ibogaine: A journey from plant to pharmaceutical

Ibogaine, a psychedelic alkaloid, has a history before its 1960s anti-addictive discovery that involves colonial appropriation, early pharmaceutical research, and commodification. During French colonial rule, ibogaine-containing plants from the Congo Basin were classified and appropriated. In 1900, ibogaine was isolated from Tabernanthe iboga, leading to early French scientific research on its effects. Throughout the 20th century, ibogaine was commercialized in several pharmaceutical products, including Dragées Nyrdahl, Grains des Anémiques, Syséros, Viris Lucet, Ibobiose, and Iperton. Evidence shows ibogaine was used in Mexico in 1913 for substance use disorder, challenging the dominant account of its anti-addictive discovery. Indigenous medicinal knowledge from the Congo Basin critically shaped subsequent scientific understanding.

Study at a glance

Abstract

Abstract Background and aims Ibogaine, one of the oldest psychedelic alkaloids introduced to Western society and medicine, has a largely overlooked history prior to Howard Lotsof's accidental identification of its anti-addictive properties in the 1960s. This manuscript explores some previously hidden aspects of ibogaine, with a focus on the entangled cultural, colonial, and scientific histories related to its early development from plant and ritual remedy to commercialized pharmaceutical before the 1960s. Methods The article is primarily based on a non-systematic literature review of various discoveries found in historical sources. In structuring the findings, we outline three main and somewhat overlapping phases of ibogaine's historical trajectory before the 1960s: i) the colonial appropriation and classification of ibogaine-containing plants from the Congo Basin during French colonial rule, ii) the isolation of ibogaine from the Tabernanthe iboga plant in 1900 and the early pharmaceutical research on its effects and uses, mainly in the French scientific community, and iii) the commodification of ibogaine in several pharmaceutical products and their international diffusion throughout the 20th century. Drawing on a historiographical approach rooted in postcolonial perspectives on colonial botany, biopiracy, and the intellectual property system, our analysis foregrounds the power-relations that have structured each of these three phases of ibogaine's early development, use, and commercialization as a pharmaceutical. Results Throughout this historical investigation, we present evidence that ibogaine was commercialized in several retail medicines beyond the well-known Lambarène . These included Dragées Nyrdahl, Grains des Anémiques, Syséros, Viris Lucet , Ibobiose , and Iperton . We further present discounted records documenting local uses of iboga in the Congo Basin, alongside early scientific publications on ibogaine, both of which served to guide and contextualize the medical research conducted during the early and mid-20th century. These findings complicate simplified narratives of the drug discovery of ibogaine, underscoring the critical role of indigenous medicinal knowledge in contributing to and shaping subsequent scientific understanding. Moreover, we identify evidence that ibogaine was first used in Mexico in 1913 for the treatment of a substance use disorder – a finding that challenges established historiographies and compels a revision of the dominant account of the ‘discovery’ of ibogaine's anti-addictive potential. Conclusions The article uncovers a range of previously overlooked historical sources that broadens the understanding of ibogaine's international trajectory and its embeddedness in various cultural, colonial, and scientific contexts. By illuminating ibogaine's multifaceted past, we seek to deepen the understanding of its contemporary framing and contextualize its potential future use in Western medicine. This historical inquiry contributes to a more nuanced and comprehensive account of ibogaine's past and its evolving place at the intersection of pharmacological and cultural histories and changing power dynamics. Among other things, we complicate unilinear accounts of who ‘discovered’ the anti-addictive effects of ibogaine, and we provide historical grounds for recognizing the people of the Congo Basin as both knowledge and resource providers of ibogaine's early development and commercialization as a pharmaceutical.