Assessing the relationship between neural entrainment and altered states of consciousness induced by electronic music

Listening to electronic music at a tempo of 1.65 Hz (about 99 beats per minute) produces stronger brainwave synchronization than faster tempos of 2.25 Hz or 2.85 Hz. In 20 participants, this slower tempo also increased feelings of unity, a component of altered states of consciousness, though this subjective experience was not directly linked to the brain entrainment itself. However, a correlation emerged between entrainment and faster reaction times on cognitive tasks. The findings suggest tempo modulates neural entrainment and may influence certain aspects of consciousness, but the relationship between entrainment and altered states remains unclear.

Study at a glance

Abstract

In electronic music events, the driving four-on-the-floor music appears pivotal for inducing altered states of consciousness (ASCs). While various physiological mechanisms link repetitive auditory stimuli to ASCs, entrainment—a brainwave synchronization through periodic external stimuli— has garnered primary focus. However, there are no studies systematically exploring the relationship between entrainment and ASCs. In the present study, we depart from the finding that entrainment to auditory stimuli peaks for stimulation rates around 2 Hz compared to others. Twenty participants listened to six one-minute electronic music excerpts at different tempos (1.65 Hz, 2.25 Hz, and 2.85 Hz). For each excerpt, they performed cognitive tasks and reported phenomenological experiences related to ASCs through questionnaires. Brain activity was recorded with electroencephalography to assess whether a modulation in entrainment by the beat of electronic music affected objective and subjective proxies of ASCs. Our results revealed a tempo-driven entrainment modulation, peaking at 1.65 Hz. Similarly, participants’ experience of unity during listening to the music was higher for the excerpts at 1.65 Hz, yet no relationship with entrainment was found. Critically, a correlation was found between entrainment and participants’ reaction time. Further studies are granted to explore how individual traits, such as musical training, modulate the relationship.