Natural Guardians of the Balkans: Entheogens in Indigenous Practices and Their Implications for Well-Being and Therapy

Psychedelic plants and fungi have long been used in traditional rituals and medicine, including within Slavic cultural heritage, but knowledge of their use on the Balkan Peninsula is largely undocumented due to oral transmission. This review describes the ethnobotanical uses of native Balkan entheogens, outlines the pharmacological mechanisms of their active compounds, and discusses their impacts on social behavior, mental health, and well-being. It examines therapeutic potential and risks, aiming to bridge indigenous knowledge with contemporary psychedelic-assisted therapy and advocate for culturally respectful research practices.

Study at a glance

Abstract

Psychedelic plants and fungi have been traditionally used in many cultures as part of ritual ceremonies and ancient medicinal treatments. In some regions, these psychoactive plants have already entered mainstream discourse through popular literature and art. Today, numerous academic and medical institutions are establishing dedicated departments to examine the benefits and risks of psychedelic-assisted treatments. Entheogens in healing practices and herbal medicine are part of Slavic cultural heritage. However, due to the predominantly oral transmission of this knowledge, there is a significant lack of written sources and a profound gap in documentation regarding entheogen use on the Balkan Peninsula, where many psychoactive plants and mushrooms grow in their natural habitat. Our work aims to bridge indigenous knowledge systems with contemporary therapeutic discourse, while advocating for sustainable, inclusive, and culturally respectful research practices. This review manuscript presents information on Slavic ancient entheogens, and calls for further multidisciplinary, integrative approaches in researching psychoactive plants and mushrooms of the Balkans. Our paper includes the ethnobotanical uses of native Balkan entheogens, outlines the pharmacological mechanisms of their main active compounds, and discusses their impacts on social behavior, mental health, and overall well-being. We also examine their therapeutic potential and risks, contributing to the contemporary understanding of psychoactive and psychedelic use in mental health treatment and beyond, as tools for life enhancement to improve quality of life and well-being.