International journal of molecular sciences
February 25, 2026
Mengchan Su, Qingran Li, Ping Liao et al.
Astrocytes undergo extensive molecular reprogramming during transitions of consciousness. Proteomic and phosphoproteomic analyses of rat cortical astrocytes across wake, sleep, and sevoflurane-induced general anesthesia revealed state-specific molecular signatures. Sleep and anesthesia shared similar changes such as downregulated structural proteins and upregulated membrane transport complexes, but diverged in molecular expression. Anesthesia specifically suggested potential activation of cellular differentiation and structural plasticity pathways, while implying disruption of metabolism and molecular clearance compared to sleep. Phosphoproteomics identified downregulated phosphorylation of NUCKS1 at Ser188 during anesthesia, suggesting suppressed nuclear transcription or cell cycle activity as a potential molecular signature of the anesthetic state. Sleep was associated with upregulated mRNA processing, while anesthesia indicated potential enhancement of synaptic signaling and suppression of development-related programs.
Frontiers in psychiatry
January 1, 2025
Congyi Li, Zhihui Wang, Xinman Ye et al.
Several anesthetic agents—ketamine, propofol, nitrous oxide, sevoflurane, and isoflurane—show promise as rapid antidepressants, especially for treatment-resistant depression. Their effects appear to involve modulation of glutamate and GABA signaling, interactions with serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, activation of BDNF and VGF pathways, regulation of the HPA axis, and suppression of inflammation. These mechanisms overlap with core depression-related changes. While traditional antidepressants have limited efficacy and delayed onset, anesthetics offer faster alternatives. However, their precise mechanisms, long-term safety, and optimal clinical use remain unclear. This review summarizes recent experimental and clinical research on these agents, highlighting molecular mechanisms, therapeutic potential, and current limitations.
arXiv Preprint Archive
May 17, 2024
Xin Li
Consciousness emerges from a cycle-consistent, affectively anchored inference process recursively structured by the interaction of emotion and cognition. Emotion acts as a low-dimensional structural prior; cognition provides specificity-instantiating updates. This emotion-cognition cycle minimizes joint uncertainty by aligning emotionally weighted priors with context-sensitive cognitive appraisals. Subjective experience arises as the informational footprint of temporally extended, affect-modulated simulation. The Exchangeable Integration Theory of Consciousness (EITC) models conscious episodes as conditionally exchangeable samples drawn from a latent affective self-model. This latent variable supports integration via a unified cause-effect structure with nonzero irreducibility and differentiation by preserving contextual specificity. The framework connects to the Bayesian theory of consciousness through Rao-Blackwellized inference, which stabilizes inference by marginalizing latent self-structure while enabling adaptive updates, preventing inference collapse and supporting goal-directed simulation.