Meditation is defined as an attention-based technique for inner transformation, providing a common reference for cross-cultural study. The essay discusses how meditative attention varies in focus and mode across cultures, attitudes toward its technical nature, and the relationship between short-term state changes and long-term trait changes in inner transformation. It distinguishes meditation from non-technical, state-oriented, or mechanical practices like automated mantra repetition, and explores fuzzy boundaries with prayer, mysticism, ritual, shamanism, medicine, martial arts, relaxation techniques, and psychotherapy.
Meditation practices can be divided into two types: directive meditation, which uses outside-in processes to bring about inner change, and non-directive meditation, which relies on inside-out processes. They differ in meditation object (thematic vs. technical), mental attitude (concentrative vs. non-concentrative), and context (suggestive vs. non-suggestive). Most practices combine both elements but vary in emphasis. The essay argues that the common contrast between concentrative and insight meditation is problematic for non-Buddhist forms. Social constructivism in cultural history has favored directive explanations, overlooking the importance of non-directive processes.