The philosophy of religion has neglected practices central to traditions like Afro-Brazilian Candomblé and Umbanda—offering, sacrifice, spirit possession, and mediumship—because philosophers rely on text-based, belief-focused, institutionalized religions. Anthropologists have studied these orally transmitted traditions for nearly a century, yet philosophers lack a methodology for such practices. The authors argue this neglect is not accidental but stems from a restricted diet of examples and inattention to ethnography. They critique Kevin Schilbrack’s proposed embodiment paradigm, conceptual metaphor theory, and extended mind thesis, finding his view of language as linear, his problematic conception of the body, and his misleading account of cognitive levels inadequate. Instead, they conclude that the philosophy of religion should adopt enactivism to treat religious practices as cognitive enterprises.
Empathy is central to religious experience in the Brazilian Umbanda religion, a syncretic faith blending African spiritual practices, Catholicism, and Kardecist spiritism. In Umbanda rituals, mediums embody spirits of old slaves (pretos velhos), creating profound empathic exchanges that facilitate communal healing and personal transformation. The article argues, through predictive processing theory and embodied cognition, that these empathic interactions are deeply rooted in participants' physical and social embodiments, not merely psychological. This perspective shows how Umbanda serves as both a spiritual practice and a socio-cultural mechanism helping individuals navigate personal and collective life challenges, exemplifying how religion can be a powerful conduit for social cohesion and personal introspection.