The ugly side of amphetamines: short- and long-term toxicity of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘Ecstasy’), methamphetamine and d-amphetamine
Biological Chemistry January 2, 2011 Thomas Steinkellner, Michael Freissmuth, Harald H. Sitte et al. 112 citations
Amphetamines like speed, ice, and ecstasy are widely abused for their euphoric and stimulant effects. While animal studies show strong evidence that MDMA causes chronic neurotoxicity, the physiological consequences in humans remain unclear. Differences in metabolism and pharmacokinetics between species and animal strains make it difficult to design realistic human dose paradigms in animal research. This review examines amphetamine toxicity, especially MDMA toxicity, in the context of human disease, setting aside confounding factors such as polydrug use and drug purity.