A review of literature from 2014 to 2024 examines how virtual reality can induce, modulate, and assess altered states of consciousness. Four methodological fields are analyzed: clinical and therapeutic research, cognitive science and neurophysiology, immersive technology and human-computer interaction, and psychological and phenomenological evaluation. VR-mediated altered states can be systematically evaluated through multimodal techniques, but the review reveals significant methodological inconsistencies, including a lack of standardization in experimental designs, variability in measurement tools, and limited interdisciplinary integration. The authors call for a standardized methodological framework to enable replicable assessment of VR-induced altered states.
In interactive technologies like extended reality (XR), brain-computer interfaces (BCI), and generative AI, a new framework redefines how human agency is understood. Drawing on enactivist cognitive science, the authors propose replacing the traditional "sense of agency" (SoA) with "feelings of agency" (FoA), which includes affective engagement and volitional attention. These are measured using neurodynamic indicators (valence, arousal, and cross-frequency coupling in the dorsal attention system) alongside first-person reports. The framework aims to provide richer, actionable insights for designing digital affordances that enhance human agency in rapidly evolving interactive environments.