Dualism in Yakut Shamanic Practices

Yakut shamanism contains pronounced dualistic features that divide the spirit world into good and evil, reflected in the distinction between 'white' shamans (associated with upper deities and fertility) and 'black' shamans (linked to lower, destructive forces). Drawing on G. Ksenofontov's theory that this dualism arose from a transition from bull to horse cults alongside class processes, the paper uses field data from 2022–2024 expeditions to rural Yakutia. Christian conversion caused white shamanic roles—especially ancestor and deity worship—to decline while black shamanic practices survived. The Ysyakh holiday ritual culture still displays both fertility and destruction symbols. Shamanic healing methods further illustrate this dualism. The authors argue for an integrated approach that includes both traditional shamanism and neo-shamanism to understand Sakha cultural heritage.

Study at a glance

Abstract

Introduction. Yakut shamanism is an important aspect of traditional culture that specifically articulates certain customary beliefs. The paper analyzes various approaches to understanding shamanism, including evolutionist theory, a constructivist approach, and the concept of ‘invented tradition’. It is noted that Yakut shamanism has pronounced dualistic features reflecting the division of mythological thinking into good and evil, as well as the juxtaposition of divine and evil beings. Goals. The study seeks to examine some manifestations of dualism in Yakut shamanic practices. Materials and methods. The research rests on the theoretical approach adopted by G. Ksenofontov who analyzed the issue as follows: he would associate it with the transition from the cult of bull to that of horse paralleled by certain class processes. G. Ksenofontova tended to divide religion into ‘upper’ (white shamans) and ‘lower’ (black ones) levels, and would focus on that in folk culture the former disappeared while the latter survived — the conversion to Christianity. The analysis also involves field data collected during ethnographic expeditions to Yakutia’s rural districts in 2022–2024. Results. The work considers two key scientific paradigms that define the study of shamanism — essentialism and constructivism. Particular attention is given to the dualistic concept manifested in the division of shamanism into ‘black’ and ‘white’ practices (and shamans). The paper outlines these two types, their functions, rituals, and roles in Yakut culture. There is also an insight into how Christianity has influenced traditional shamanism, which notes the advent of Christian priests resulted in that roles of shamans as cult ministers did change, and the latter led to some aspects of ‘white’ shamanism associated with the worship of ancestors and deities would be lost. Our appeals to Ysyakh holiday practices show how this dualistic structure manifests itself in ritual culture that comprises symbols of both fertility and destruction. The paper also stresses some healing methods used by shamans (and their characteristics) that further accentuate dualism in religious beliefs and shamanic practices of the Sakha. Conclusions. So, the article identifies manifestations of dualism in functional and sacred parts of Yakut shamanism, delineates traditional methods and tools of shamanic healing practices. It is urgent to employ an integrated approach to the study of Yakut shamanism, since both traditional and modern elements — e. g., such a trend as neo-Shamanism — should be as taken into consideration for deeper understanding of its significance in the context of Sakha cultural heritage.