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Shamanism

Traditional and cross-cultural practices working with non-ordinary states for healing and meaning.

State of the evidence

Synthesized

Synthesized from 24 studies in the library · AI-generated, grounded in the abstracts below

Found by searching the library for Shamanism, shamanic, entheogenic ritual, indigenous healing, then ranked by relevance.

Research on shamanism spans archaeological, ethnographic, neurophysiological, and psychological perspectives, consistently documenting its role as a cross-cultural healing and spiritual practice involving altered states of consciousness, often facilitated by psychoactive plants or music. Evidence from a single neuroimaging study suggests shamanic trance involves a shift from left-analytical to right-experiential brain activity, while survey and ethnographic data indicate that participation in shamanic rituals (e.g., ayahuasca ceremonies) is associated with reductions in neuroticism and reports of therapeutic benefits, though these findings are limited by small samples, open-label designs, and potential romanticization of indigenous traditions. The main caveat is that most evidence is qualitative or observational, with no controlled trials, and the field lacks systematic research on risks, cultural appropriation, and long-term outcomes.

Confidence in the evidence

Low-Moderate
  • Only one neurophysiological study (n=1) directly measures brain changes during shamanic trance, limiting generalizability.
  • Personality change findings (n=256) are from open-label, non-randomized designs with high risk of bias.
  • Multiple ethnographic and theoretical studies provide rich qualitative data but no causal evidence.
  • Consistent direction across studies supports shamanism's association with altered states and perceived healing, but effect sizes and mechanisms remain unclear.
How we rate confidence

Confidence reflects the strength of the underlying evidence, not whether the result is favorable. It weighs the number and size of studies, their design (randomized trials count for more than observational or single-case work), how consistently they point the same way, and their risk of bias.

Tiers run from Insufficient to High. High is rare in this field: small, early, or open-label studies land lower even when their direction is encouraging.

Evidence by study

Direction is each study's finding relative to your question: Supports, Opposes, No effect, Mixed, or Unclear.

Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America. 2019
Supports

Chemical traces of multiple psychoactive plants (bufotenine, DMT, harmine, cocaine) in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle support the historical use of shamanic paraphernalia.

archaeological chemical analysis · Sample size: 1

Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond 2014
Unclear

Discusses how Amazonian shamanic rituals involving ayahuasca have spread to Western societies and been transformed through cultural dialogue.

book

Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism 1998
Unclear

Compares psychedelic psychotherapy and shamanic healing, highlighting differences in worldview, particularly the shamanic belief in multiple realities and spirits.

theoretical review

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview 2008
Unclear

Reviews the history, taxonomy, and traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms (primarily Psilocybe) in Mexican indigenous cultures.

review

Ayahuasca Tourism: Participants in Shamanic Rituals and their Personality Styles, Motivation, Benefits and Risks 2015
Supports

Participants reported motivations including curiosity, mental health treatment, and spiritual development, and benefits including self-knowledge and improved relationships; personality scores showed above-average intuition and optimism.

cross-sectional survey · Sample size: 77

Brain changes during a shamanic trance: Altered modes of consciousness, hemispheric laterality, and systemic psychobiology 2017
Supports

Quantitative EEG and LORETA source imaging during self-induced shamanic trance showed a shift from left-analytical to right-experiential brain activity and from anterior prefrontal to posterior somatosensory mode.

case study (neurophysiological) · Sample size: 1

"Plantas con madre": plants that teach and guide in the shamanic initiation process in the East-Central Peruvian Amazon. 2011
Unclear

Identified 55 plant species used in shamanic initiation and apprenticeship, administered under strict conditions called 'dietas'.

ethnographic study · Sample size: 36

Shamanism as the Original Neurotheology 2004
Unclear

Argues that universal principles of shamanism (animism, soul flight, death-rebirth) reflect innate brain modules and provide a basis for neurotheology.

theoretical review

Purging and the body in the therapeutic use of ayahuasca 2019
Supports

Purging is integral to ayahuasca's therapeutic use across Amazonia and should be reconsidered for potential therapeutic effects rather than dismissed as side effect.

ethnographic study with literature review · Sample size: 227

The Globalization of Ayahuasca Shamanism and the Erasure of Indigenous Shamanism 2016
Opposes

Romanticization of indigenous shamanism in ayahuasca tourism erases the complexity of indigenous peoples' situations and the commercialization of their spirituality.

ethnographic study

Examining changes in personality following shamanic ceremonial use of ayahuasca. 2021
Supports

Ceremonial ayahuasca use was associated with a large reduction in Neuroticism (self-report dz = -1.00 at post, -0.85 at 3-month follow-up; informant-report dz = -0.62 at follow-up).

longitudinal observational study · Sample size: 256

The globalization of traditional medicine in northern peru: from shamanism to molecules. 2013
Unclear

Documents 510 medicinal plant species used in traditional medicine, with 65% used in mixtures; antibacterial activity confirmed in most plants used for infections.

ethnographic study with bioassays

Cognitive Neuroscience, Shamanism and the Rock Art of Native California 1998
Unclear

Argues that Native Californian rock art depicts mental imagery and somatic hallucinations of trance, and that shamanic trance often involved unpleasant emotions.

theoretical review

From Culture to Experience: Shamanism in the Pages of the Soviet Anti-Religious Press 2020
Unclear

Describes a shift in Soviet anti-religious journals in the 1960s, where shamanism was reframed from a cultural practice to a universal human capacity for altered states.

historical analysis

The rhythms of trance: Cultural phenomenology and neural mechanisms of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness. 2026
Unclear

Integrates anthropological and neuroscientific perspectives on music-induced trance, noting shared features across shamanic and contemporary contexts, but empirical evidence remains fragmented.

review

A Shamanic Interpretation of the Folktale Magical Ruler for Healing and Saving Lives 2026
Unclear

Interprets a folk tale through a shamanic lens, identifying elements such as the axis mundi, spirit helpers, and symbolic death/rebirth as reflecting shamanic initiation.

theoretical analysis

Beliefs in and experiences of sorcery, black magic and brujería among psychedelic users: a quantitative and qualitative survey 2026
Unclear

Aims to estimate prevalence of beliefs in supernatural harm among Western psychedelic users and examine associations with psychedelic experiences; results not yet reported in abstract.

cross-sectional online survey · Sample size: 895

The Structural Paradox of the Shamanic Healing Ritual: Relational Displacement and the Search for Transcendence in Korean Spirituality 2026
Unclear

Proposes a relational displacement model for Korean shamanic healing rituals (byeong-gut), arguing they operate as ontological technology that re-maps suffering onto a relational cosmology.

theoretical analysis

Shamanic Symbolism in the Robe Patterns of the Chu State: A Semiotic and Archaeological Study 2026
Unclear

Analyzes shamanic symbolism in robe patterns from the ancient Chu state, revealing a hierarchical symbolic system encoding cosmology and ritual practices.

archaeological and semiotic analysis

Optimizing music for psychedelic-assisted therapy: Examining contemporary practices, traditional entheogenic rituals, and musically-induced peak experiences 2026
Unclear

Identifies conflicting musical features between modern psychedelic-assisted therapy, traditional entheogenic rituals (including shamanic), and musically-induced peak experiences.

interdisciplinary literature review

Where Spirits Still Speak: Chinese Mass Shamanism and the Unfinished Project of Modernity 2026
Unclear

Argues that Chinese mass shamanism is a cultural response to modernity's structural predicaments, including social atomization and the erosion of 'the nearby'.

qualitative analysis

From Shamanic Trance to Spiritual Consciousness: Mapping the Earliest Roots of Human Spirituality 2026
Unclear

Proposes that the origins of human spirituality emerge from early experiential practices embedded within indigenous cultures, including shamanic trance.

theoretical review

A Panpsychist Theory of Shamanism 2026
Unclear

Develops a panpsychist theory of shamanism, arguing that shamanic altered states involve exploration of consciousness and that 'spirit' is another word for mind.

theoretical paper

A Cultural Pathway to Addressing Contemporary Mental Illness: Construction and Healing Logic of the “Virtual Illness” Concept in Shamanism in the North of China 2026
Unclear

Describes the indigenous concept of 'virtual illness' in northern Chinese shamanism, where prolonged mental distress is attributed to possession by malevolent spirits and treated through spiritual healing.

ethnographic study

Points of agreement

  • Shamanism is consistently described as a cross-cultural practice involving altered states of consciousness for healing and spiritual purposes.
  • Psychoactive plants (e.g., ayahuasca, psilocybin mushrooms) are frequently documented as tools in shamanic rituals across different regions and time periods.
  • Ethnographic studies agree that shamanic healing involves a worldview that includes spirits, multiple realities, and symbolic death/rebirth experiences.
  • Music and rhythmic stimulation are commonly identified as key components for inducing trance states in shamanic and related practices.

Conflicts

  • One study (20554) highlights that Western romanticization of indigenous shamanism erases the complexity and injustices faced by indigenous peoples, while other studies (20545, 8498) focus on positive outcomes for Western participants without addressing these power dynamics.
  • The role of purging in ayahuasca ceremonies is framed as therapeutically valuable (20549), but this perspective may conflict with biomedical views that dismiss it as a side effect.
  • Music features in shamanic rituals (simple, rhythmic, fast tempo) conflict with those used in modern psychedelic-assisted therapy (simple, slow tempo) and peak-experience music (complex, surprising) (31367).

Gaps

  • No randomized controlled trials or rigorous experimental designs exist for shamanic practices; most evidence is observational, ethnographic, or theoretical.
  • Long-term outcomes and potential harms (e.g., psychological distress, cultural appropriation) are understudied.
  • The neurophysiological basis of shamanic trance is based on a single case study (n=1) and requires replication with larger samples.
  • Durability of personality changes (e.g., reduced Neuroticism) beyond 3 months is not established.
  • The prevalence and impact of beliefs in supernatural harm (sorcery) among Western psychedelic users are not yet quantified (study 28334 is ongoing).
Browse these studies in the library
How we analyze this

This synthesis reads the 15 most-cited and 10 most recent studies whose primary subject is Shamanism, up to 25 in all. The most-cited set anchors the established evidence, and the recent set surfaces work that is too new to have gathered citations yet.

A study qualifies only when Shamanism or a known alias appears in its title or keywords, so broad reviews that mention it only in passing are left out. Each study is read from its abstract, strongest evidence first, and the summary reports the direction of the results along with any conflicts and gaps.

Ask your own question in the Research Synthesis Tool

784 articles · 170 from the last two years · 7,886 participants across 103 studies reporting sample size

Common study designs

review 85 ethnography 47 qualitative study 61 historical analysis 62 theoretical or philosophical paper 264

Research

Synthesize the evidence → Search all →

The cultural evolution of shamanism

Manvir Singh • 35 citations

Shamanism—including medicine-men, mediums, and prophets—is a near-universal feature of human societies, especially among hunter-gatherers, and is often considered the first profession, the earliest institutionalized division of labor beyond age and sex. This paper proposes a cultural evolutionary theory explaining why shamanism consistently develops and exhibits recurrent features worldwide, why it professionalizes early even without other specialization, and how social conditions shape its form. The theory argues that shamanism adapts to people's intuitions by convincing observers that a practitioner can influence unpredictable, significant events. The shaman ostensibly transforms during initiation and trance, violating folk-intuitions of humanness to assure group-members of interaction with invisible forces controlling uncertain outcomes. Entry requirements persist because credibility depends on transformation, unlike problems with identifiable solutions where credibility hinges on results.

DOI: 10.31235/osf.io/bemhx

Functionalism versus the structuralist tradition.

The Behavioral and brain sciences • July 10, 2026 • Giulio Ongaro

The author argues that Singh's subjective functionalism, while a valuable synthesis, fails to account for the holistic nature of human culture. Unlike structuralist approaches in anthropology, which treat cultural elements as interconnected within systems, Singh's view isolates them. Using shamanism as an example, the author contends that cultural features are defined by their relationships to other features, not as standalone packages.

DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x2510441x Full text

magnetismo del peyote

Revista de Arqueología Americana • July 10, 2026 • Stacy B. Schaefer

Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is a psychoactive cactus central to religious beliefs, healing practices, and transformative experiences among Indigenous peoples of Mexico and North America. The Wixárika (Huichol) have the longest known continuous use, while the Native American Church's practices in the US and parts of Canada developed more recently. This article reviews peyote's botany, chemistry, medicinal qualities, ecology, archaeology, history, and religious practices, presenting Indigenous knowledge, rituals, and adaptation to change. It concludes by discussing the alarming scarcity of peyote and conservation efforts to protect the plant's future.

DOI: 10.35424/rearam.i44.6303

Ritualized Medical Pluralism: Understanding the Social Legitimacy and Practice of Indigenous Knowledge and Spiritual Healing System Embedded in Pheri Culture of Phree Community in Nepal

Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary Research • July 9, 2026 • Krishna Jogi

The Pheri culture of the Phree community in eastern Nepal is an indigenous spiritual healing system used for both prevention and cure, grounded in animistic, shamanistic, and tantric cosmology. It addresses illness from spiritual affliction, cosmological imbalance, and social disruption. Households combine biomedicine with Pheri healing based on culturally specific explanations of illness, creating a pattern of ritualized medical pluralism. The study argues that Pheri is a complementary and essential therapeutic domain, and its marginalization threatens cultural continuity and community health resilience.

DOI: 10.3126/njmr.v9i2.95229 Indigenous Biomedicine Medical anthropology Legitimacy +11

Maria Sabina-Die enteignete Heilerin / Vier Enteignungen, ein Muster

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) • July 8, 2026 • Schüller Thomas

Two works examine the appropriation of Indigenous healing practices. The first, 'Die enteignete Heilerin' (The Expropriated Healer), focuses on the Mazatec shaman Maria Sabina, whose use of psilocybin mushrooms was co-opted by outsiders. The second, 'Vier Enteignungen, ein Muster' (Four Expropriations, One Pattern), compares the appropriation of peyote, ayahuasca, salvia, and iboga, arguing that a common pattern of colonial and capitalist expropriation underlies these cases.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21252639 Theme computing Subject documents Context archaeology Art

The rhythms of trance: Cultural phenomenology and neural mechanisms of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness.

Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews • July 1, 2026 • Athanasia Kontouli, Michael J Hove, Alexandre Lehmann et al.

Trance states induced by music, from shamanic rituals to electronic dance music raves, share common musical features and cultural narratives. Anthropological and neuroscientific evidence suggests that different forms of trance engage partially overlapping neural dynamics, including increased low-frequency brain wave synchronization and a shift from executive control networks to limbic and default mode networks. These patterns reflect the interplay of cognitive, emotional, and sensory systems, though current empirical evidence remains fragmented and methodologically heterogeneous. The review emphasizes trance as both a cultural and biological phenomenon and calls for integrating phenomenological and neurophysiological data to build comprehensive models of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106706 Full text Music-induced trance Neuroimaging Raves Shamanism

A Shamanic Interpretation of the Folktale Magical Ruler for Healing and Saving Lives

June 30, 2026 • Woojang Sim

A folk tale about a magical ruler that heals and revives the dead is analyzed through a shamanic lens. The ruler acts as an axis mundi, a spiritual bridge connecting heaven and earth, guiding the soul back to the body. The tale's narrative follows shamanic initiation: a mysterious dream (supernatural calling), imprisonment and symbolic death, learning healing from animals (shamanic education), and reviving a princess to gain communal recognition. Similar shamanic elements appear in related tales, where powers like healing and understanding animals reflect traditional shamanic abilities. The study argues that shamanism, as a primordial system of thought, forms a foundational cultural framework underlying many folk narratives.

DOI: 10.22274/koralit.2026.81.001 Ruler Heaven Shamanism Soul +17

Shamanic Symbolism in the Robe Patterns of the Chu State: A Semiotic and Archaeological Study

IRA International Journal of Education and Multidisciplinary Studies • June 19, 2026 • Liangying Zeng, Zongyu Xie, Yuyan Wang et al.

Robes from Tomb No. 1 at Mashan, Jingzhou, representative artifacts of the ancient Chu state, encode a hierarchical symbolic system. Using semiotics and textual exegesis of the Chu Ci alongside excavated bamboo slips, the analysis of three motif categories—divine symbols, cosmic imagery, and botanical patterns—reveals that the decorative patterns convey Chu cosmology, ritual practices, and aspirations for longevity. This finding bridges textual religious records and material cultural relics, providing a foundation for studying cross-cultural transmission of Chu heritage.

DOI: 10.21013/jems.v22.n2.p1 Semiotics Exegesis Bridge graph theory Motif music +5

The Structural Paradox of the Shamanic Healing Ritual: Relational Displacement and the Search for Transcendence in Korean Spirituality

Religions • June 19, 2026 • Dongkyu Kim

Shamanic healing rituals in Korea, specifically byeong-gut, paradoxically follow the rigid format of blessing rituals rather than adopting a clinical approach. This article argues that previous scholarship wrongly reduces shamanic healing to psychological comfort or social liberation. By integrating Roy Rappaport's theory of ritual invariance with relational ontologies from Bruno Latour and Tim Ingold, the authors propose a relational displacement model. Healing operates through two mechanisms: at the material level, the ritual objectifies and displaces individual suffering onto external surrogates; at the linguistic level, the invocation chant re-assembles the patient's fragmented life into a network of human and non-human agencies. The byeong-gut transforms suffering into an intelligible event within a shared cosmic order.

DOI: 10.3390/rel17060733 Transcendence philosophy Spirituality Scholarship Displacement psychology +8

Beliefs in and experiences of sorcery, black magic and brujería among psychedelic users: a quantitative and qualitative survey

June 19, 2026 • Jules Evans, Christian Jurlando, David Luke et al. preprint

Belief in sorcery and supernatural harm is common among Western psychedelic users, with many reporting experiences they interpret as shamanic attack. In a survey of 895 adults involved in psychedelic culture, participants often downplayed indigenous sorcery frameworks in favor of psychological explanations, yet some left ceremonies convinced they had been harmed supernaturally. The study estimates the prevalence of such beliefs, examines how psychedelic experiences and cultural immersion shift these beliefs, and characterizes experiences interpreted as black magic. It also assesses whether fear of magical retaliation inhibits criticism of ceremonial leaders. Findings aim to inform harm reduction in ceremonial settings.

DOI: 10.31234/osf.io/kbqr3_v2 Ethnography Indigenous Participant observation Facilitator +11