Caffeine, nicotine, cannabis, and psilocybin: Pharmacology, toxicology, and potential therapeutic uses of four naturally occurring psychoactive substances
Swiss Medical Weekly July 1, 2025 Samuel E Christen, Elias Bekka, Yasmin Schmid et al. 3 citations
Caffeine, nicotine, cannabis, and psilocybin are naturally occurring psychoactive substances that alter perception, consciousness, cognition, and emotions. Their natural origins have led to long histories of human use and cultural significance. Caffeine and nicotine are widely available as everyday stimulants, while psilocybin is strictly regulated and cannabis is legal in some regions. Their pharmacological and toxicological properties are well known, but ongoing research investigates therapeutic use for specific diseases and disorders. This narrative review provides an overview of these four substances, summarizing evidence on therapeutic potential, health benefits, and associated risks.