Caffeine, nicotine, cannabis, and psilocybin: Pharmacology, toxicology, and potential therapeutic uses of four naturally occurring psychoactive substances
Swiss Medical Weekly – July 01, 2025
Source: OpenAlex
Summary
Despite varying legal statuses, naturally occurring psychoactive drugs like Caffeine, Nicotine, Cannabis, and Psilocybin share a rich history and complex pharmacology. A comprehensive review in Drug Studies explores the toxicology and therapeutic potential of these four psychoactive substances. It details their use as medicine, from common stimulants like Caffeine to the hallucinogen Psilocybin. This work, relevant to Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research and Forensic Toxicology and Drug Analysis, highlights each drug's risks and benefits, informing future drug development.
Abstract
Psychoactive substances are compounds that can influence perception, consciousness, cognition, and emotions. The psychoactive substances caffeine, nicotine, cannabis, and psilocybin all originate from natural sources and can be used without complex processing or synthesis. Their natural availability has contributed to a long-standing history of human use and cultural significance. Caffeine and nicotine are freely available and commonly used as everyday stimulants, whereas psilocybin is more strictly regulated and cannabis has been legalised in some countries and regions. Some of these substances have been intensively studied, and their pharmacological and toxicological properties are well known, but ongoing research continues to investigate their therapeutic use for specific diseases and disorders. This narrative review aims to provide an overview of the pharmacology and toxicology of these four naturally occurring psychoactive substances, including a summary of the currently available evidence on their therapeutic potential, health benefits, and associated risks.