Altered states of consciousness appear frequently in psychotherapeutic practices across many cultures. Western psychotherapy's historical roots, from the Dionysian rites and Asclepian temples to Mesmerism and psychoanalysis, show a central role for such states. Non-Western healing rituals also employ trance states in culturally varied ways. The widespread presence of altered states in such different cultural contexts suggests they may be a universal component of psychotherapy.
An intoxication model based on altered states of consciousness is described and illustrated with research on marijuana. The intoxication state of consciousness influences social behavior and cognitive functioning and may help engender and stabilize social cohesion. Treatment implications include cognitive labeling of cues that trigger abuse, training for moderated drug use while intoxicated, and offering alternative altered states through meditation.