Archives of toxicology
August 1, 2015
Ana Margarida Araújo, Félix Carvalho, Maria de Lourdes Bastos et al.
290 citations
Tryptamines are a broad class of hallucinogens that act primarily as agonists of the 5-HT2A receptor, producing profound changes in sensory perception, mood, and thought. Historically, natural tryptamines like psilocybin and DMT have been used in ritual contexts, but synthetic tryptamines such as AMT, 5-MeO-DMT, and 5-MeO-DIPT have recently emerged as recreational drugs, often sold as 'research chemicals' online. Reports of intoxication and deaths have raised international concern, though the lack of pharmacological and toxicological data hampers assessment of their public health harm. This review covers historical background, prevalence, patterns of use, legal status, chemistry, toxicokinetics, toxicodynamics, and physiological and toxicological effects in animals and humans.
Archives of toxicology
April 1, 2021
Young-Jung Kim, Shi-Xun Ma, Kwang-Hyun Hur et al.
10 citations
The drugs 2C-C and 2C-P, members of the 2C family of phenethylamines, show abuse potential and neurotoxic effects at high doses in animal models. In mice, both drugs produced conditioned place preference in a dose-dependent manner and increased self-administration in rats, indicating abuse potential. High doses decreased locomotor activity, rota-rod performance, and scores on memory tests (Y-maze, novel object recognition, passive avoidance). The drugs altered expression of D1 and D2 dopamine receptors, the dopamine transporter, and its phosphorylated form in the nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex, and increased c-Fos-positive cells in the nucleus accumbens. High doses also activated microglia, suggesting neuroinflammation in the striatum.
Archives of toxicology
May 1, 2023
Marie H Deventer, Mattias Persson, Antonio Laus et al.
7 citations
Some psychedelic substances that carry the N-benzyl phenethylamine (NBOMe) structure can activate the µ opioid receptor (MOR), an off-target effect confirmed by two different assays. This activation was blocked by the opioid antagonist naloxone, indicating these NBOMes bind to the same opioid binding pocket as conventional opioids. Molecular docking showed plausible interactions of 25I-NBOMe with MOR similar to those of opioids. However, MOR activation occurred only at high concentrations, making relevant opioid toxicity in vivo unlikely at physiologically relevant levels. Small modifications to the NBOMe structure could yield more potent MOR agonists with dual MOR/5-HT2A activation potential.
Archives of toxicology
August 1, 2024
Brian A Baldo
5 citations
MDMA (ecstasy) is an entactogen that primarily releases and blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, with mood effects mediated by 5-HT2A receptors. Its social-bonding properties may involve oxytocin release. Acute adverse effects, mostly transient, include dehydration, hyperthermia, seizures, and organ failure, often at crowded events. Deaths from MDMA alone are rare compared to coadministration with other drugs. A phase 3 trial found MDMA-assisted therapy a potential breakthrough for PTSD, prompting regulatory steps: Australia's TGA approved prescribing for PTSD, and the FDA approved trials for asociality in schizophrenia and alcohol-use disorder, with ongoing studies on startle response, anxiety in life-threatening illness, and social anxiety in autistic adults.
Archives of toxicology
March 1, 2025
Junqi Chen, Ziteng Wang, Ching Yee Yong et al.
3 citations
Psilocin, the active compound from magic mushrooms, is metabolized mainly by the enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) in the liver and other organs. The Phase I metabolic pathway produces a newly identified intermediate, 2-(4-hydroxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-acetaldehyde (4-HIA), which is then converted to the terminal metabolite 2-(4-hydroxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-acetic acid (4-HIAA) by aldehyde oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenases. MAO-A-mediated hepatic clearance accounts for 80.9% of total hepatic metabolism, but extrahepatic clearance is substantial, with total MAO-A-mediated organ clearance estimated at 614.81 mL/min, indicating that MAO-A plays a major role both in the liver and elsewhere in the body.
Archives of toxicology
March 10, 2025
Yiling Tang, Linhao Xu, Zhenshuo Guo et al.
1 citation
Proscaline and methallylescaline are two phenylethylamine derivatives of the classic hallucinogen mescaline, classified as new psychoactive substances (NPS) not controlled by international drug conventions. Limited toxicity information has hindered their identification. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry with three complementary models—computational prediction, zebrafish (in vivo), and human liver microsomes (in vitro)—the study identified 7 proscaline metabolites and 11 methallylescaline metabolites for the first time. Hydroxylated and N-acetylated products were the major metabolites, enabling their selection as biomarkers for detecting intake of these two NPS over a relatively wide detection window.
Archives of toxicology
July 1, 2026
Kamil Jurowski, Alicja Krośniak, Damian Kobylarz et al.
Lysergamide analogs such as ALD-52, 1P-LSD, 1B-LSD, 1 V-LSD, and 1cP-LSD are new psychoactive substances with hallucinogenic potential whose toxicological profiles are largely unknown. A comprehensive in silico assessment using multiple platforms predicted acute toxicity LD50 values in rats from 49 to 85 mg/kg. Organ-specific risks included elevated pulmonary risk for 1 V-LSD (92%) and 1cP-LSD (81%), and highest hematotoxicity for 1P-LSD (76%) and 1B-LSD (75%). Genotoxicity alerts were identified for ALD-52 and 1cP-LSD (up to 90% predicted probability), while all compounds were classified as non-mutagenic by OCHEM. Cardiotoxicity assessment showed strongest hERG channel inhibition for 1 V-LSD (IC50 = 1.4 µM), suggesting elevated proarrhythmic potential. Structural modifications at the N-1-acyl position influence toxicity patterns, particularly affecting cardiopulmonary and genotoxic endpoints.
Archives of toxicology
March 31, 2026
Kamil Jurowski, Damian Kobylarz, Maciej Noga
Serotonergic tryptamines, including psilocin, psilocybin, DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT, are increasingly used medically and recreationally, but experimental toxicity data are scarce. A comprehensive computational assessment using nine validated QSAR models evaluated six tryptamines for acute toxicity, organ effects, cardiotoxicity, genotoxicity, irritation, and estrogenic activity. All compounds were classified as high toxicological concern (Cramer Class III). Predicted oral LD50 values ranged from 100 to 500 mg/kg, indicating moderate to high acute toxicity. Cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems were primary targets (≥90% predicted effect). DMT and 5-MeO-DMT showed the highest predicted hERG inhibition (IC50 20–45 µM), suggesting cardiotoxic potential, while psilocybin showed lower risk (IC50 ≈760 µM). Most tryptamines were predicted non-mutagenic and non-endocrine active.
Archives of toxicology
January 28, 2026
Kamil Jurowski, Damian Kobylarz, Maciej Noga
A computational workflow predicted the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) profiles of two methoxy-substituted phencyclidine analogues, 3-MeO-PCP and 4-MeO-PCP, for clinical and forensic use. Both analogues are predicted to have high passive permeability, gastrointestinal absorption, and blood-brain barrier access. They are expected to distribute extensively into tissues, with high plasma protein binding (around 70-80%) and large volumes of distribution. Metabolism is primarily by CYP3A4, CYP2D6, and CYP2C19, involving O-demethylation followed by glucuronidation, suggesting potential for drug-drug interactions and genotype effects. 4-MeO-PCP shows a higher theoretical propensity for bioactivation. These predictions guide targeted bioanalysis and matrix selection when in vivo data are limited.
Archives of toxicology
December 8, 2025
Maciej Noga, Kamil Jurowski
Phencyclidine (PCP) and its analogues (3-HO-PCP, 3-MeO-PCP, 4-MeO-PCP, 3-HO-PCE, 3-MeO-PCE, 4-MeO-PCE) are dissociative new psychoactive substances with high abuse potential and limited safety data. An integrated in silico workflow using multiple computational tools predicted moderate acute toxicity for all analogues, with rat oral LD50 values consistently in the 200-630 mg/kg range across platforms, and substantially lower intravenous LD50 values in mice (25-59 mg/kg). Organ-specific predictions highlighted the lungs, liver, and blood as prominent targets, and cardiotoxicity signals included potential hERG inhibition and QT-prolongation risk. Genotoxicity predictions were consistently negative, while eye and skin irritation potential was notable for phenolic analogues. Endocrine screening suggested at most weak-to-moderate estrogen receptor alpha interactions.
Archives of toxicology
April 19, 2025
António B Pimpão, Luísa Teixeira-Santos, Nuno R Coelho et al.
Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), which models the low-oxygen episodes of obstructive sleep apnea, alters how the body processes ketamine, a common anesthetic. In rats exposed to CIH, a shift in ketamine metabolism favored hydroxynorketamine over norketamine in liver and kidney tissues. Six metabolites were identified, including the first report of norketamine glucuronide formation in the liver. Blocking the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) with an antagonist changed hydroxynorketamine glucuronidation, suggesting AhR overactivation in CIH influences ketamine breakdown. These findings highlight that anesthetic metabolism can differ under disease conditions like sleep apnea, emphasizing the need to account for such changes in metabolic studies.
Archives of toxicology
October 1, 2020
Eline Pottie, Annelies Cannaert, Christophe P Stove
correction
No Summary