A systematic historical-philosophical analysis traces the development of the Buddhist concept of time from the early theory of momentariness (kṣanikavāda) in Abhidharma to the Tantric teaching on cyclical and multi-layered temporality (Kālacakra). Static analysis reveals the radicalisation of momentariness in the Hinayana schools (Vaibhashika and Sautrantika) and its deconstruction and phenomenologisation in Madhyamaka and Yogacara. Dynamic analysis identifies four key turning points in Buddhist rationality—idealistic, epistemological, trans-empirical, and post-canonical—that transformed the concept of time and integrated momentariness into the tantric model of cyclical time in the Kalachakra tradition. These findings broaden the methodological basis for dialogue between Buddhism and Western science.
This article compares Western philosophical and Sufi models of self-reflection to create an integrative metamodel of subject formation. In Western philosophy, self-reflection is a rational-analytical procedure for clarifying knowledge and securing subjective certainty. In Sufi spiritual anthropology, it is an existential, transformative path involving inner contemplation (murāqaba), self-examination (muḥāsabah), overcoming egocentricity (fanāʾ), and attaining a renewed being (baqāʾ). The study reconstructs ontological, epistemological, and procedural foundations from classical sources. It argues that reflection in philosophy is a cognitive procedure of clarification, while in Sufism it is an ontological event transforming the subject's mode of being. The proposed metamodel treats philosophical analyticity and Sufi transformability as complementary modes in subject formation, expanding self-reflection beyond pure rationality without irrationalizing mystical experience.