Journal of ethnopharmacology
December 5, 2018
Sara Anna Bonini, Marika Premoli, Simone Tambaro et al.
669 citations
Cannabis sativa L. is an annual dioecious plant originating alongside early Asian agriculture. Its parts have been used therapeutically and recreationally, with Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol as the key psychoactive constituent. The phylogenetically ancient endocannabinoid system, present in primitive vertebrates, includes ligands AEA and 2-AG and receptors CB1 and CB2. This review critically evaluates ethnological, botanical, chemical, and pharmacological aspects of C. sativa from ancient times to the present, drawing on international databases, books, dissertations, and unpublished resources. Findings confirm its traditional uses and popularity as a recreational drug. Phytocannabinoids are suggested to be involved in pathophysiological mechanisms including food intake, inflammation, pain, colitis, sleep disorders, and neurological and psychiatric illness. Despite medicinal benefits, they remain banned worldwide except in a few countries.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
January 4, 2008
Kenneth R Alper, Howard S Lotsof, Charles D Kaplan
184 citations
Ibogaine, a naturally occurring psychoactive alkaloid, is used within a global medical subculture to treat substance-related disorders, particularly opioid withdrawal. As of February 2006, an estimated 3,414 individuals had taken ibogaine—a fourfold increase from five years earlier—with 68% doing so for a substance-related disorder and 53% specifically for opioid withdrawal, the most common reason. The subculture lacks clinical and pharmaceutical standards, posing risks. Ethnographic analysis identified four types of ibogaine scenes: medical model, lay provider/treatment guide, activist/self-help, and religious/spiritual. The focus on opioid withdrawal distinguishes ibogaine from other psychedelics and aligns with experimental evidence of a significant pharmacologically mediated effect.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
May 1, 1983
L J Valdés, J L Díaz, A G Paul
166 citations
Salvia divinorum, a perennial herb in the mint family, is used by the Mazatec people of Oaxaca, Mexico, for healing and divination. Its psychotropic effects are compared to those of other Mazatec hallucinogens, such as morning glory and psilocybin-containing mushrooms. The plant's role in the native pharmacopeia is discussed based on prior reports and the authors' fieldwork with a Mazatec shaman.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
October 3, 2005
Hesham R El-Seedi, Peter A G M De Smet, Olof Beck et al.
162 citations
Two dried peyote buttons from the Witte Museum in San Antonio were radiocarbon dated and chemically analyzed. The calibrated radiocarbon age of the samples corresponds to 3780-3660 BC. Alkaloid extraction yielded about 2% alkaloids, and mescaline was identified in both samples using thin-layer chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. No other peyote alkaloids were found. These are the oldest plant drugs ever to yield a major bioactive compound upon chemical analysis. The identification of mescaline suggests that native North Americans recognized the psychotropic properties of peyote as long as 5700 years ago.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
January 1, 1994
A T Weil, W Davis
125 citations
Anthropologists have long hypothesized that ancient Mesoamericans used the toad Bufo marinus as a ritual intoxicant, based on iconographic and mythological representations and speculative ethnographic reports. The authors reject B. marinus due to its venom's toxicity. Instead, they propose the Sonoran desert toad, Bufo alvarius, as a more likely candidate because it secretes large amounts of the potent hallucinogen 5-MeO-DMT. Experiments show that B. alvarius venom, though toxic when eaten, can be safely smoked and is powerfully psychoactive by that route. This is the first documentation of a hallucinogenic agent from the animal kingdom, providing clear evidence of a psychoactive toad possibly used by Precolumbian peoples.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
April 12, 2011
X Jauregui, Z M Clavo, E M Jovel et al.
91 citations
A group of plants called plantas con madre (plants with a mother) are used by Amazonian healers in East-Central Peru to guide apprentices during initiation into traditional medicine. Based on work with 29 curanderos, 3 apprentices, and 4 herbalists from 2003 to 2008, 55 plant species from 26 families were identified. These plants are administered in shamanic diets (dietas) under master healers' supervision, following a sequence: purification, sensitivity and intuition, strengthening, and protection. The system is fundamental to traditional medicine and cultural continuity. The research calls for collaboration with Indigenous healers to better recognize their practices and worldviews.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
July 1, 1984
L E Luna
78 citations
A 65-year-old shaman in northeastern Peru, Don Emilio Andrade Gómez, preserves extensive plant knowledge and provides health care to local populations. Certain plants, called 'doctors' or 'plant teachers,' are believed to teach medicine when consumed under isolation and diet, often added to the hallucinogenic beverage ayahuasca. During isolation, the plants' spirits teach the initiate melodies (icaros) used in shamanistic practice. Fieldwork in 1981 and 1982 collected specimens of these plant teachers, some now identified, and the shaman's cosmovision is described.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
April 21, 2010
Yan-Hong Wang, Volodymyr Samoylenko, Babu L Tekwani et al.
73 citations
Banisteriopsis caapi, a vine used in ayahuasca, shows promise for treating neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease. This work developed standardized aqueous extracts from different plant parts, locations, and seasons, then tested them in vitro for inhibition of human monoamine oxidases (MAO) and antioxidant activity. HPLC analysis revealed that dried bark from large branches contained the highest concentrations of key chemical markers (1, 2, 5, 7-9). Harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine were responsible for MAO-A inhibition, while epicatechin and procyanidine B2 produced antioxidant effects. Commercial dried stems had lower marker content and reduced potency compared to the Da Vine source. The results support traditional use of bark from mature stems.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
May 1, 1996
C Desmarchelier, A Gurni, G Ciccia et al.
63 citations
The Ese'eja, a hunter-fisher-gatherer tribe in southeastern Peru, view disease as arising from accident, distraction, indolence, or evil powers—either from a harmful shaman or the Devil. Their health practices are inseparable from religious beliefs. Shamanic practices, including the use of medicinal and ritual plants, are described to show this integration. Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi) plays a central role in shaman initiation and healing rituals, with diagnosis and treatment involving invocations to the ayahuasca spirit. The text presents plants used as medicine or invoked for healing.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
June 12, 2020
Albert Katchborian-Neto, Wanderleya T Santos, Karen J Nicácio et al.
62 citations
Ayahuasca, a tea made from Amazonian plants and traditionally used for neurological illness, shows neuroprotective potential in a laboratory model of Parkinson's disease. Using an untargeted metabolomics approach, the study tested the beverage, extracts from its component plants (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis), fractions, and main alkaloids on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells damaged by 6-hydroxydopamine. Most samples were not toxic and some increased cell viability. The crude extracts, alkaloid fractions, and the alkaloid harmine showed notable neuroprotection after 72 hours, while hydroalcoholic fractions were protective at both 48 and 72 hours.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
February 3, 2014
Ivan Casselman, Catherine J Nock, Hans Wohlmuth et al.
54 citations
Over the past 50 years, Salvia divinorum has become globally recognized for its main active constituent, the diterpene salvinorin A, which is a kappa-opioid agonist and the first reported psychoactive diterpene. This review covers ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, taxonomy, systematics, genetics, chemistry, and pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic research. Traditional Mazatec use is well documented, but modern ethnobotanical use is not. Botanical investigations are limited, and only one study has examined phylogenetic relationships. Chemistry research has focused on salvinorin A and related diterpenoids. Effects have primarily been studied in animal models. Published human studies report no harmful effects at doses of 0.375-21µg/kg, but more toxicology and safety data are needed before larger clinical trials.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
August 2, 2015
Bradley C Bennett, Rocío Alarcón
43 citations
People in lowland Ecuador and Peru give plants to their hunting dogs to improve performance, yet no experimental evidence or pharmacological review exists. This review catalogs plants used by Ecuadorian Shuar and Quichua, finding 22 species, including nearly all their major hallucinogens, and 43 species from other cultures. No studies have tested these plants' effects on dogs. Combining phytochemical data with ethnobotanical reports, the authors classify the plants as depuratives, olfactory sensitizers, ophthalmic agents, or psychoactive. They hypothesize that hallucinogens may enhance dogs' hunting by filtering extraneous signals and sharpening sensory perception, particularly olfaction, potentially aiding detection of explosives or drugs.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
April 1, 1979
P Naranjo
41 citations
Plant hallucinogens, particularly ayahuasca made from Banisteriopsis species, remain in use among contemporary Indigenous peoples of Ecuador. Archaeological evidence suggests prehistoric ayahuasca use. The Jibaro and other tribal groups maintain detailed belief systems and practices around major hallucinogenic plants. Coastal and Inter-Andean Indigenous drug use is also surveyed. Aboriginal belief systems, folk medicine, and worldviews are closely intertwined with the ingestion of plant hallucinogens.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
December 4, 2016
Chabaco Armijos, Gianluca Gilardoni, Luis Amay et al.
38 citations
Seven Huperzia species used by Saraguro healers in southern Ecuador show high consensus among ten visionary healers for use as purgatives and against supernatural diseases like espanto. Some species, in mixtures, induce trance or hallucinations during rituals. Phytochemical analysis identified lycodine- and lycopodine-type alkaloids, flavones selgin and tricin, and rare serratene triterpenes. Alkaloid fractions from four species significantly inhibited acetylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase A in vitro, suggesting a basis for psychoactive effects in traditional brews. The findings document and support the preservation of Saraguro traditional medical knowledge.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
August 2, 2016
Bridget Forsyth, Liana Machado, Tim Jowett et al.
35 citations
A single 20mg dose of ibogaine had minimal influence on psychological tests and mood ratings in healthy male volunteers. The ability to selectively ignore distracting spatial information showed some evidence of modulation, but only in the less challenging condition, raising questions about reliability. No stimulant effects were identified. The study assessed relationships between changes in test scores and concentrations of active moiety (the sum of molar noribogaine and ibogaine concentrations), but future research is needed to confirm whether these concentrations impact selective attention abilities while leaving other cognitive functions and mood state unaffected.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
April 1, 1999
A B Pomilio, A A Vitale, J Ciprian-Ollivier et al.
34 citations
Drinking Ayahuasca, a South American hallucinogenic beverage, produces an experimental psychosis that mirrors the pathologic transmethylation theory of schizophrenia. This theory proposes that reduced monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity leads to accumulation of methylated indolealkylamines like bufotenin, DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT, which are strong hallucinogens. Ayahuasca is prepared by boiling plants containing beta-carbolines (potent MAO inhibitors) and DMT, mimicking the biochemical conditions hypothesized in psychoses. After healthy subjects consumed the beverage, urine samples contained the same hallucinogenic compounds found in acute psychotic unmedicated patients. The study also reports the beverage's chemical composition and plant material, along with psychometric and neuroendocrine parameters.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
October 1, 1995
S Hajicek-Dobberstein
34 citations
Legends of 2nd- and 9th-century Buddhist adepts contain clues that they consumed psychedelic Amanita muscaria mushrooms to achieve enlightenment, with the mushroom hidden behind symbols, some shared with the Rg Veda's Soma system, others from earlier Northern Eurasian shamanic use, and some unique to Buddhist stories. These symbol sets from Northern and Southern Asian traditions also appear in the Germanic god Odin.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
July 8, 1994
J Gartz, J W Allen, M D Merlin
34 citations
A newly documented psychoactive mushroom species, Psilocybe samuiensis, was collected in Koh Samui, Thailand and studied for its psychoactive alkaloid content. Laboratory cultivation on malt agar showed growth rates between those of related species. HPLC analysis of both wild and laboratory-grown fruit bodies revealed high concentrations of psilocybin and psilocin, with small amounts of baeocystin. Psilocybin levels ranged from 0.23% to 0.90% dry weight, with the highest concentrations in the caps. Cultured non-bluing mycelia also contained psilocybin (0.24% to 0.32% dry weight). The alkaloid profile resembled that of many other psychoactive fungi but differed markedly from Psilocybe semilanceata.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
June 30, 2006
Christian Moretti, Yvan Gaillard, Pierre Grenand et al.
32 citations
The hallucinogenic potion takini, used by shamans in Suriname, French Guiana, and eastern Brazil, comes from the latex of the Brosimum acutifolium tree. Chemical and botanical analysis reveals that its active ingredient is bufotenine, a psychoactive compound. This compound occurs only in the subspecies Brosimum acutifolium Huber subsp. acutifolium C.C. Berg, which grows in the eastern Guianas. The finding explains why the tree's psychotropic properties seemed inconsistent with its broader medicinal uses in surrounding regions.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
March 1, 1985
P A De Smet
32 citations
Ritual intoxicating snuffs in the western hemisphere involve plants with varying levels of evidence for psychoactive properties and indigenous use. Four categories emerge: plants with confirmed psychoactive principles and confirmed or probable ritual use (Anadenanthera, Erythroxylum, Nicotiana, Virola); plants with confirmed psychoactive principles but poorly recorded or unlikely ritual use (Banisteriopsis, Cannabis, Datura, Ilex guayusa); plants with confirmed or probable ritual use but unconfirmed psychoactive principles (Justicia pectoralis, Pagamea macrophylla, Tanaecium nocturnum); and plants with poorly recorded use and unconfirmed psychoactive principles (Acorus calamus, Capsicum, Macquira sclerophylla, Piper interitum). Nasal pharmacokinetics show atropine, cocaine, nicotine, and scopolamine are effective nasally, but tryptamine alkaloids lack experimental confirmation. Self-experiments with 6.4 mg/kg caffeine produced substantial plasma levels nasally, while 0.5 mg/kg harmine did not produce measurable levels.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
May 26, 2015
Toshiyuki Ueki, Kazushige Mizoguchi, Takuji Yamaguchi et al.
31 citations
Chronic isolation stress in male mice increased head-twitch behaviors induced by a serotonin 2A receptor agonist, a model of hallucination-like behavior. Treatment with yokukansan, a traditional Japanese medicine, reduced this enhanced response. Isolation stress also increased the density of serotonin 2A receptors in the prefrontal cortex, and yokukansan treatment reversed this increase without affecting receptor affinity or mRNA levels. Among the seven constituent herbs, Bupleurum Root, Uncaria Hook, Japanese Angelica Root, and Glycyrrhiza each showed over 50% of yokukansan's effect in down-regulating receptor density, though these reductions were not statistically significant. The findings suggest yokukansan's effect on hallucination-like behaviors is mediated by down-regulation of serotonin 2A receptors in the prefrontal cortex.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
December 8, 2011
Ivan Casselman, Michael Heinrich
30 citations
A novel use pattern of Salvia divinorum has developed outside of Oaxaca, differing from traditional Mazatec use. Analyzing YouTube videos through unobtrusive observation and a custom web crawler, the study documented that the majority of videos presented indications of a positive experience with the plant, contradicting media reports. This methodology captures dynamic plant/human interactions on the World Wide Web, where global migration and online platforms amplify cultural change. The representation of Salvia divinorum on YouTube is a growing phenomenon, highlighting the need for ethnopharmacological research to move beyond traditional, decontextualized accounts.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
February 10, 2024
Alberto Hernandez-Leon, Raúl Iván Escamilla-Orozco, Aylín R Tabal-Robles et al.
29 citations
High doses of Psilocybe cubensis mushroom, given orally or by injection, produced antidepressant- and anxiety-reducing effects in mice without signs of neurotoxicity. The mushroom's polar aqueous extract, which contained psilocybin and psilocin, was particularly effective. In behavioral tests, the mushroom and its extracts matched the effects of standard antidepressant and anti-anxiety drugs. The lethal dose was greater than 2000 mg/kg, indicating low acute toxicity. These preclinical results suggest the mushroom may be a safe and effective treatment for anxiety and depression.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
January 1, 1992
J W Allen, M D Merlin
27 citations
Ethnomycological fieldwork in southern Thailand (Koh Samui, Koh Pha-ngan, and other areas) documented the occurrence, harvesting, use, and marketing of psychoactive fungi among local Thai natives, foreign tourists, and German immigrants. First records of psychoactive Psilocybe subcubensis and Copelandia dung fungi in Thailand are presented; these fungi showed intense bluing reactions indicating psilocybin or psilocin. Seven collections of Psilocybe cubensis or subcubensis and four of Copelandia sp. were harvested. The fungi grow on decomposed manure of water buffalo and cattle, are cultivated clandestinely, and sold directly to tourists or used in restaurant dishes like omelettes and soups. Some omelettes are adulterated with artificial hallucinogens. Marketing of mushroom-themed items is also described.
Journal of ethnopharmacology
March 25, 2022
Ilana Berlowitz, David M O'Shaughnessy, Michael Heinrich et al.
26 citations
The Peruvian-Amazonian dieta is a retreat-like intervention involving lengthy social, behavioral, and alimentary restrictions while ingesting specially prepared plant substances, many of which are psychoactive. Based on interviews with 16 healers from Ucayali, San Martín, and Loreto provinces, the method is described as transformative, with multifaceted applications for treatment, prevention, and training. Benefits are attributed to teacher plants, dietary conditions, and the healer's skill. A detailed risk assessment revealed sophisticated safety measures. The dieta is a central therapeutic concept and a unique method for using psychoactive plants, warranting inclusion in current psychedelic research.