PLoS ONE
May 24, 2017
Jared R. Lindahl, Nathan E. Fisher, David J. Cooper et al.
468 citations
Meditation practices derived from Buddhism are widely used for health promotion, but their traditional sources also describe a broader range of effects. The Varieties of Contemplative Experience study used interviews with Western Buddhist practitioners and experts from Theravāda, Zen, and Tibetan traditions, plus a follow-up survey, to investigate underreported meditation-related experiences, especially those that are challenging, distressing, or impairing. Thematic analysis produced a taxonomy of 59 experiences across 7 domains: cognitive, perceptual, affective, somatic, conative, sense of self, and social. Interpretations and responses varied greatly, with valence ranging from very positive to very negative and distress from minimal to severe. The study identified 26 influencing factors across 4 domains: practitioner-level, practice-level, relationships, and health behaviors.
Frontiers in Psychology
January 1, 2014
Jared R. Lindahl, Christopher T. Kaplan, Evan M. Winget et al.
123 citations
Meditation can induce visual light experiences, such as discrete lightforms and patterned or diffuse lights, which are well documented in Buddhist texts but rarely reported in scientific literature. Reports from American Buddhist practitioners closely match these traditional accounts. The paper argues that meditative practices that reduce sensory and social stimulation and focus attention produce perceptual and cognitive effects similar to sensory deprivation. Since sensory deprivation is known to increase neuroplasticity, meditation may similarly enhance neuroplastic potential. The findings suggest that scientists, clinicians, and meditators should be aware of this broader range of experiences arising from contemplative practice.
Religions
November 24, 2021
David J. Cooper, Jared R. Lindahl, Roman Palitsky et al.
20 citations
Energy-like somatic experiences (ELSEs), such as sensations of heat, tingling, or energy moving through the body, are frequently described in religious texts and have been documented in a few psychological studies, yet they remain understudied in meditation research. Based on narratives from a large qualitative sample of Western Buddhist meditators who reported meditation-related challenges, this paper describes how ELSEs manifest in practitioners' lives. It moves beyond a 'kundalini awakening' framework to catalog the metaphors practitioners used, the trajectories and impacts of ELSEs, factors influencing their nature, how they were interpreted by practitioners, teachers, doctors, and therapists, and the remedies employed. Interpreting and managing ELSEs often drew on frameworks from within or beyond the meditator's Buddhist tradition.
Journal of Contemplative Studies
July 23, 2025
Roman Palitsky, David J. Cooper, Jared R. Lindahl et al.
10 citations
Western Buddhist meditators often draw on both religious and scientific worldviews to make sense of meditation-related challenges. Interviews with 68 meditators and 33 meditation experts revealed five ways these worldviews relate: conflict, compatibility, nested relationships, discrete domains, and complementarity. These varied relationships carry existential weight and influence how meditators respond to challenges. The findings suggest that the scientific study of contemplative practices should consider the diverse ways religion and science interact, and that nuanced understandings of these relationships can help practitioners and teachers address meditation-related difficulties.
Frontiers in Psychology
July 29, 2020
Jared R. Lindahl, D. James Cooper, Nathan E. Fisher et al.
2 citations
Buddhist meditation practitioners and teachers report a wider range of difficult or distressing experiences than previously discussed, some of which are considered expected on the contemplative path. Distinguishing these from psychopathology requires expanding assessment frameworks beyond normative fit with religious experience or mental illness to include the need for intervention, whether religious or clinical. Decision-making about intervention often depends on contextual factors, aligning with person-centered mental health care that considers interpersonal and cultural dynamics.
Frontiers in Psychology
October 24, 2025
Elizaveta Solomonova, Jared R. Lindahl, Ian Gold et al.
1 citation
Delusion-like ideation (DLI) occurs in psychopathology and among the general population, and meditation can trigger such experiences. Based on interviews with over 100 Buddhist meditation practitioners and experts, this mixed-methods study establishes a typology of eight types of DLI, reports their relative frequencies, and identifies impacts and treatment outcomes. Four case studies illustrate risk factors, trajectories, outcomes, and appraisals. Responses to DLI depend on type, duration, severity, impact, and appraisals by meditators, teachers, and psychiatrists. Some DLI phenomenology reflects Buddhist meditation cultures; although normalized in certain contexts, meditation experts consider DLI a potential "red flag" requiring monitoring or intervention. Explanatory models include environmental conditions of retreats, attention and sensory attenuation, and DLI as a cultural idiom of distress.
Contemporary Buddhism
April 22, 2025
Nicholas K. Canby, Jared R. Lindahl, David J. Cooper et al.
1 citation
Meditation teachers can have both beneficial and detrimental impacts on practitioners facing meditation-related challenges. A mixed-methods study of 68 meditation practitioners and 33 experts from various Buddhist lineages found that beneficial relationships involved access to well-qualified teachers, appropriate guidance, and teachers with psychology or mental health training. Unhelpful factors included teacher unavailability, limited student tracking or disclosure, invalidating or victim-blaming responses, lack of perceived expertise, and mismatched interpersonal or cultural dynamics. The psychologization of Buddhist meditation in the West shapes student-teacher relationships and expectations, especially during challenges.
Journal of Contemplative Studies
July 23, 2025
Jared R. Lindahl
A philosophical analysis of Nan Shepherd's "The Living Mountain" argues that her intense attentional practices in the Cairngorms—walking, seeing, and cultivating absorption until she encounters the mountain as a unified living system—should not be described as Buddhist, despite possible influence from a Victorian-era summary of Buddhist teachings. The paper resists earlier scholarship that frames her experiences in Buddhist terms, and instead contends that such framing misrepresents her unique approach. It concludes by reflecting on how Shepherd's work can broaden scholarly definitions of contemplation to include practices outside major religious traditions.