Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2003
Thomas B. Roberts
121 citations
A comprehensive phenomenological analysis of the ayahuasca experience, based on systematic observations and reports from hundreds of sessions. The author charts the characteristic patterns of consciousness alteration induced by the Amazonian psychoactive brew, describing its effects on perception, thought, memory, emotion, and sense of self. The work argues that ayahuasca experiences exhibit a distinctive cognitive phenomenology that can be systematically mapped, revealing regularities in visions, insights, and altered states that challenge ordinary assumptions about mind and reality. Shanon draws on cognitive psychology, philosophy, and anthropology to interpret these phenomena without reducing them to either neurochemistry or cultural construction.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2016
Evgenia Fotiou
84 citations
Ayahuasca, a hallucinogenic plant mixture used ceremonially in western Amazonia, has grown popular among Westerners traveling to the Peruvian Amazon for its healing and transformative effects. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork near Iquitos, Peru, the paper examines problematic aspects of Western engagement with indigenous spiritual traditions, which often rely on idealized notions of shamanism and overlook unsettling elements like sorcery. The romanticization of indigenous peoples is not benign; it conceals the complexity of their situations by erasing past and ongoing injustices. A more holistic approach is proposed, viewing indigenous peoples not as living in harmony with nature but as facing challenges, including the commercialization of their spirituality.
Anthropology of Consciousness
July 30, 2022
Keith Williams, Osiris Sinuhé González Romero, Michelle Braunstein et al.
68 citations
The current resurgence of interest in psychedelics for treating depression, anxiety, PTSD, and addictions is driven by colonial extractivism, similar to the European Renaissance. Indigenous communities, who have long used these substances ceremonially, receive few benefits from the legalization and commercialization of psychedelics. The paper argues that Indigenous philosophical traditions can help reorient the psychedelic movement toward a more equitable future for Indigenous Peoples and the medicines themselves.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 1998
David S. Whitley
68 citations
Combining ethnographic and cognitive neuroscience research sheds light on the origin and symbolism of Native Californian rock art. The ethnographic record shows that the art depicts mental imagery and somatic hallucinations from trance, representing supernatural experiences. A cognitive neuroscience perspective suggests the shamanistic state of consciousness was often unpleasant, involving negative emotions, rather than primarily ecstatic. Biochemical changes during trance required making rock art to preserve the memory of these experiences.
Anthropology of Consciousness
August 22, 2022
Neşe Devenot, Trey Conner, Richard Doyle
45 citations
Psychedelic medicines such as psilocybin, ayahuasca, and iboga have gained mainstream attention for treating addiction, PTSD, cancer, cluster headaches, anxiety, and depression, attracting venture capital and leading to well-capitalized biotech companies with multimillion-dollar IPOs. The authors, who have been healed by these medicines and support recent decriminalization, argue that this corporate-driven "corporadelia" pursues standardization while sidelining the Indigenous and counterculture wisdom that made these substances available. They critique prominent researchers for overstating clinical trial findings in public representations and argue that new psychedelic thought leaders delegitimize non-hierarchical knowledge production. The authors contend that psychedelics' latent potential lies in transforming hegemonic infrastructures and ideologies that perpetuate inequality, not just individual habits.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2009
Charles D. Laughlin, C. Jason Throop
45 citations
The experience-reality gap—the difference between how the world appears and its underlying reality—is recognized across cultures, yet Western philosophy has long struggled to explain it. This article proposes an anthropologically informed cultural neurophenomenology as a way to bridge that gap. The approach combines phenomenology that accounts for cultural differences in perception and interpretation with neuroscientific findings about brain structure. The authors argue that this integrated perspective offers a generative route to understanding the relationship between consciousness and reality.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2012
Evgenia Fotiou
44 citations
In Amazonian mestizo shamanism, healing is a central goal of ayahuasca ceremonies, particularly for Western participants in shamanic tourism near Iquitos, Peru. Illness is understood to have physical, psychological, and spiritual dimensions, and healing is a complex process occurring both during and outside ceremonies. A key element in healing narratives is personal crisis, which acts as a catalyst for positive transformation across all three dimensions. Healing is not a singular event but a process where the patient bears responsibility for their own recovery.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2008
Sara E. Lewis
40 citations
Westerners who use ayahuasca in the Amazon without adequate screening face increased risk of psychological distress, yet many also report profound spiritual experiences. These episodes may be understood as 'spiritual emergencies'—crises triggered by transformative spiritual experiences. Ethnographic data on indigenous shamanic initiation and liminality theory can help make sense of difficult experiences, though romantic comparisons to shamans should be avoided. Culturally sanctioned psychotherapy, especially from therapists trained in spiritual crises, can assist Western users in meaning-making. Three case studies illustrate individuals working through different crises after ayahuasca ceremonies.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2002
C. Jason Throop
40 citations
Dilthey's descriptive psychology offers a framework for understanding consciousness, experience, and culture that can inform anthropological research. His concepts of experience, introspection, and objectified mind, along with the acquired psychic nexus, provide tools for examining phenomena like pain. The paper argues that Dilthey's ideas remain relevant for contemporary theoretical perspectives on the relationship between consciousness, culture, and experience in anthropology.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2015
Ismael Apud
36 citations
Ayahuasca, a psychoactive substance from the Amazon, has spread globally through spirituality and religious markets. In Uruguay, four groups introduced it; one holistic therapy center blends Peruvian shamanic traditions into its ceremonies. The paper proposes a 'distributed cognition' model to understand ayahuasca rituals as a system of activity, explaining how cognition is shared across people, tools, and environment during the ritual.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2012
Charles D. Laughlin, Vincenza A. Tiberia
34 citations
Carl Jung's work has had surprisingly little impact on the anthropology of consciousness, despite its relevance. This paper explains why that oversight occurred, summarizes Jung's archetypal psychology, and argues it is more nuanced and valuable than extreme constructivist perspectives allow. Jung's ideas about consciousness align well with contemporary neuroscience views of the psyche and offer a corrective to relativist understandings of consciousness and its relationship to the self.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2010
Bonnie Glass‐coffin
34 citations
Archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence shows that the San Pedro cactus has been used in northern Peru for over 2000 years as a vehicle for traveling between worlds and for imparting the “vista” (magical sight) that shamanic healers need to divine the causes of patients' ailments. The plant's use is uninterrupted and linked to ancestor worship, water and fertility cults, and wind-spirits. The paper argues that this long tradition challenges the contemporary tendency in the United States to treat San Pedro as a recreational drug rather than a sacred healing tool.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2007
Andy Letcher
30 citations
This paper examines what happens to consciousness under psilocybin (magic mushrooms) by applying Foucauldian discourse analysis to competing explanations. Dominant societal discourses—pathological, psychological, and prohibition—impose external scientific classifications based on observing others' reactions. In opposition, resistive discourses (recreational, psychedelic, entheogenic, animistic) arise from subjective experience. Critiquing these, only the animistic discourse—the belief that mushrooms enable encounters with discarnate spirit entities, or animaphany—transgresses a fundamental Western boundary: believing in spirits risks being labeled mad. This phenomenon remains largely ignored yet warrants further scholarly research.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2012
B. Anderson
29 citations
Conventional psychiatry often views psychedelic-induced altered states as pathological, a perspective that shapes scientific research on ayahuasca's potential to treat depression and anxiety. Analysis of academic literature on ayahuasca's psychological effects reveals that different experimental approaches are influenced to varying degrees by this pathological framing, yet findings still indicate some therapeutic utility of the ayahuasca-induced modified state of consciousness. The article suggests that psychiatry's dominant reasoning about psychedelic states should be reconsidered to better assess their clinical potential.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2019
P. Craffert
28 citations
Near-death experiences (NDEs) are reported by many people, but researchers disagree on what an NDE actually is. The term currently describes at least three distinct phenomena: experiences during the process of dying, experiences in life-threatening or fear-of-death situations, and experiences occurring without any life-threatening circumstances. Different researchers hold nested assumptions: some view NDEs as a single entity with one explanation, while others restrict them to life-threatening events and see them as composite experiences. The analysis argues that what is labeled an NDE should be modified to circumstance-specific alterations of consciousness.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2017
Charles D. Laughlin
27 citations
As anthropology turns toward consciousness and its varied states, it needs a way to analyze the complexity of information processing that produces the knowing aspect of consciousness. The author introduces conceptual systems theory (CST), a neo-Piagetian model of cognitive development, as a tool for this purpose. CST has successfully explained information processing in social contexts but has been overlooked by anthropologists. The article discusses CST's neuroanthropological foundations and its potential applications to ethnological and ethnographic problems, offering a new framework for understanding how components of consciousness combine into alternative states across different sociocultural settings.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2006
Peter N. Jones
27 citations
A large-scale archival and database project examined the history of how scholars in English-speaking North America have used the terms shamanism and shaman. Two main findings emerged: current uses of these terms are inadequate for historical discussion, and the terms have been used for over a century by researchers and lay people, with their meanings shifting greatly over time. This change complicates any agreed-upon operational definition. The author concludes that current understandings are unduly limited by historical research orientations and calls for a more concise, workable definition of shamanism.
Anthropology of Consciousness
June 1, 1994
Douglass Price‐williams, Dureen J. Hughes
27 citations
Altered states of consciousness (ASCs) are reported globally and include shamanism, meditation, trance, possession, and channeling. The social functions of shamanism are known, but its psychological aspects remain poorly understood. Stimulus situations that induce ASCs include drugs, music, imagery, and technological feedback devices. Physiology of ASCs is reviewed, along with whether these phenomena are considered pathological. Many people worldwide use trance, possession, and shamanic practices for healing. The adaptive functions of ASCs are considered within the history of psychology.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2012
Richard Doyle
26 citations
A first-person account describes the healing of lifelong asthma and atopic dermatitis within the shamanic context of the contemporary Peruvian Amazon and online communities. The article suggests that concepts from plant signaling and behavior research, often called 'plant intelligence,' offer a useful framework for understanding the healing potentials of visionary plant entheogens like ayahuasca. Biosemiotics provides a coherent map for contextualizing reported experiences of plant communication with these plants. The archetype of 'plant teachers' (Doctores in the upper Amazon) is explored as a way to organize this data within an epistemology of the hallucination/perception continuum. 'Ecodelic' is offered as a new term alongside 'entheogen.'
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2004
Joan B. Townsend
26 citations
The author clarifies definitions and distinctions among traditional shamans, Core shamanism, Neo-shamanism, and urban shamanism, drawing from their own papers and oral presentations. They then propose an evaluation of Core and Neo-shamanism.
Anthropology of Consciousness
May 1, 2013
Hillary S. Webb
25 citations
A conversation among three researchers examines the Western world's intellectual and spiritual engagement with shamanic practices, questioning how Western biases and philosophical assumptions have shaped both the study and practice of shamanism. They consider whether the umbrella term "shamanism" remains useful for describing diverse cross-cultural practices, and explore the ethical responsibilities of researchers and spiritual seekers. The discussion focuses on the language used to describe techniques and practitioners, the evolving relationship between researchers and cultural participants, and the implications of merging distinct worldviews.
Anthropology of Consciousness
August 23, 2010
Janine Tatjana Schmid, Henrik Jungaberle, Rolf Verres
25 citations
Ayahuasca, a psychoactive beverage used in ritualized settings such as Santo Daime and neo-shamanic rituals, is often called a 'healing ritual' by participants. Interviews with 15 people who used ayahuasca for conditions like chronic pain, cancer, asthma, depression, alcohol abuse, or Hepatitis C revealed diverse motivations, subjective effects, and user types. Most participants believed ayahuasca positively influenced their illness or improved their coping, and enhanced their general well-being. The authors conclude that ayahuasca's effects should not be reduced to a pharmacological model; instead, it acts as a psychological catalyst shaped by sociocultural ideas.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2009
H. Sidky
23 citations
A shaman's altered state of consciousness (ASC) during healing rituals in Nepal is not merely an internal psychological event but plays a crucial role in therapeutic changes for the patient through patient-healer interactions. Based on ethnographic data from 1999 to 2008, this analysis explains how the healer's ASC, combined with the cosmology of Nepalese shamans, facilitates desired therapeutic outcomes, contrasting with prior studies that focus solely on the shaman's internal state.
Anthropology of Consciousness
September 1, 2020
Evgenia Fotiou
22 citations
In ayahuasca tourism around Iquitos, Peru, rituals are deliberately framed to create liminal, transformative experiences aimed at healing through emotional modulation. Shamans use long speeches before or during ceremonies to separate the ritual space as liminal and to shape how participants conceptualize the experience, increasing its meaningfulness. Western seekers, lacking socially sanctioned spaces for altered states of consciousness, travel to the Amazon for healing and personal transformation.
Anthropology of Consciousness
March 1, 2012
Beatriz Caiuby Labate
21 citations
Brazilian ayahuasca religions—Santo Daime, Barquinha, and União do Vegetal—have pursued formal recognition from government agencies to secure legal use of ayahuasca, which contains the listed substance DMT. This article examines new alliances and rifts among these groups as they seek legitimacy at state and national levels in Brazil and abroad. It provides a historical overview of the religions' origins, especially their ties to the Amazon region and Acre state, where political conditions supported petitions to recognize ayahuasca as cultural heritage. This process has led to selective emphasis on certain symbolic and historical elements, shifts in public self-representation, and reconfiguration of political alliances, recasting origin narratives. The article reflects on how ayahuasca transforms from 'dangerous drug' to heritage.