Journal of analytical toxicology
March 1, 2015
Rafaela Martin, Jennifer Schürenkamp, Angela Gasse et al.
13 citations
A method extracts the hallucinogens psilocin, bufotenine, LSD, and related compounds (iso-LSD, nor-LSD, O-H-LSD) from hair using hydrochloric acid and methanol. Clean-up uses solid-phase extraction with a mixed-mode cation exchanger, and measurement is by liquid chromatography with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. The method was validated per the Society of Toxicological and Forensic Chemistry guidelines. Reference hair samples were created by soaking hair in a dimethyl sulfoxide/methanol solution of the analytes to allow incorporation; these fortified samples served for method development and as quality controls.
Journal of analytical toxicology
March 21, 2023
Dimitri Gerostamoulos, Linda Glowacki, Maria Pricone et al.
9 citations
Over nine months, six deaths involved the combination of two new psychoactive substances: 4-fluoroamphetamine (4FA) and 25C-NBOMe. Four deaths were directly caused by the drugs' adverse effects, one resulted from a fall while intoxicated, and one occurred during restraint. In the four direct drug-caused fatalities, postmortem blood concentrations ranged from 330 to 682 ng/L for 4FA and 1.4 to 12 ng/mL for 25C-NBOMe. None of the cases showed concentrations suggesting high recreational doses. Other drugs were present in most cases, but the two substances together were considered the primary triggers. Agitation or aggression preceded collapse in two cases, and seizures possibly occurred in three.
Journal of analytical toxicology
January 24, 2023
George Fai Wong, Wing-Man Lee, Chi-Keung Li
9 citations
A fast qualitative screening method for 11 abuse drugs in urine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed. The drugs included methamphetamine, amphetamine, MDMA, MDA, PMMA, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, ketamine, deschloroketamine, 2-fluorodeschloroketamine, and deschloro-N-ethylketamine. A dual mode extraction column cleaned up the urine matrix. Detection limits were 3 ng/mL for most amphetamines, 10 ng/mL for ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, and 1 ng/mL for ketamine and its analogs. Matrix effects ranged from -12% to 7%. The method is suitable for forensic toxicology and analysis of drugs in sexual assault and other criminal cases.
Journal of analytical toxicology
May 20, 2022
Caroline S Copeland, Simon Hudson, Ric Treble et al.
9 citations
The dissociative hallucinogen 3-MeO-PCP, a phencyclidine derivative, can cause severe psychological agitation and life-threatening cardiorespiratory effects. The United Nations classified it as a Schedule II substance in 2021. This report describes the first UK fatality solely attributable to 3-MeO-PCP intoxication, adding to 15 previous fatal cases worldwide. The authors note that blood concentrations associated with toxicity remain uncertain but provide detailed sample information to aid future interpretation. They suggest that exercise may worsen toxicity, cautioning against use as a club drug where elevated heart rate, body temperature, and blood pressure are likely.
Journal of analytical toxicology
March 21, 2022
Ruben Goncalves, Nadege Castaing, Karine Titier et al.
9 citations
A 55-year-old man died at home after a chemsex party. Toxicological analysis found high concentrations of the dissociative anesthetic methoxphenidine (MXP) in his femoral blood (606 µg/L), cardiac blood (254 µg/L), and hair (13 ng/mg). Traces of 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC) were also detected. Other drug concentrations were consistent with living subjects. This case highlights the risk of MXP poisoning during chemsex and underscores the need to include new psychoactive substances in postmortem toxicology screening.
Journal of analytical toxicology
January 21, 2021
Katarzyna Kamińska, Paweł Świt, Kamilla Malek
9 citations
25I-NBOMe, a synthetic hallucinogen chemically related to mescaline and sold online as a legal alternative to LSD, acts as a potent serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonist. Knowledge of its pharmacological properties remains limited, with few published in vivo and in vitro studies. A 2016 critical review reported 51 non-fatal intoxications and 21 deaths across Europe. Case reports describe toxic effects including tachycardia, hypertension, hallucinations, rhabdomyolysis, acute kidney injury, and death. The growing number of fatal and non-fatal intoxication cases indicates 25I-NBOMe poses a serious public health danger.
Journal of analytical toxicology
June 11, 2024
Gunhild Heide, Ragnhild Elén Gjulem Jamt, Jonas Fainberg-Sandbu et al.
8 citations
Cocaine use is increasing, while the trend for MDMA is less clear. Among drivers apprehended in Norway from 2000 to 2022, cocaine was detected in 2,331 cases and MDMA in 2,569 cases. In cases where only one drug was present, 54% of drivers with cocaine and 38% with MDMA were clinically impaired. Higher blood cocaine concentrations were linked to greater impairment odds, but no such relationship was found for MDMA. Many drivers using these drugs were not assessed as impaired.
Journal of analytical toxicology
July 22, 2023
Delphine Joseph, Camille Lesueur, Fanny Zerizer et al.
8 citations
Twenty-six potential metabolites of the ketamine derivative 2-fluorodeschloroketamine (2F-DCK) were identified, with 15 reported for the first time. Thirteen metabolites were detected in pooled human liver microsomes, 10 were confirmed in both urine and hair from a chronic user, and all were found in at least one of those samples. Nor-2F-DCK is confirmed as a reliable target analyte; OH-dihydro-nor-2F-DCK and dehydro-nor-2F-DCK are suggested as new target analytes in urine and hair, respectively. Deschloroketamine (DCK) was identified as a 2F-DCK metabolite for the first time, with concentrations in hair segments A (0–3 cm), B (3–6 cm), and C (6–9 cm) of 885, 1,500, and 1,850 pg/mg, respectively. Two seized crystals contained 2F-DCK at 67% and 96% with traces of DCK (0.4% and 0.6%) from cross-contamination.
Journal of analytical toxicology
September 15, 2023
Cristina Calvetti, Alberto Salomone, Andrea Verzeletti et al.
7 citations
An analysis of 847 hair samples from Italian adults aged 18–40, collected during 2020–2021 for driving relicensing or drug withdrawal monitoring, found that 8.4% tested positive for new psychoactive substances (NPS). Ketamine and its metabolite norketamine were the most common, appearing in 56 and 35 samples respectively. Fentanyl, norfentanyl, 4-ANPP, MDMB-4en-PINACA, N,N-DMT, 5-chloro AB-PINACA, α-PHP, and methcathinone were detected in fewer than six samples each. The low detection rate contrasts with the perceived widespread availability of NPS in Italy but aligns with similar hair analysis studies. The authors plan to expand the study population to include a broader age range and more diverse origins.
Journal of analytical toxicology
June 11, 2024
Salomé Riess, Marjorie Chèze, Aurelie Muckensturm et al.
5 citations
2-Fluorodeschloroketamine (2-FDCK), a new psychoactive substance similar to ketamine, was detected and quantified in three forensic cases: one of self-mutilation and two deaths. In peripheral blood, concentrations ranged from 457 to 5885 µg/L across the cases, and the main metabolites nor-2-FDCK, dihydro-nor-2-FDCK, and dihydro-2-FDCK were also found. Hair analysis in the two fatal cases showed 2-FDCK at approximately 4149 and 79824 pg/mg. Deschloroketamine (DCK) was present in all biological fluids and hair, but in one case it appeared to result from 2-FDCK metabolism rather than separate ingestion, suggesting the first report of DCK as a metabolite of 2-FDCK in both fluids and hair.
Journal of analytical toxicology
January 31, 2024
Miroslava Bursová, Tomáš Hložek, Miloš Sokol et al.
5 citations
A 42-year-old man who used drugs died at home and his body was found two months later. Autopsy did not reveal an obvious cause of death, but toxicology screening using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry detected methoxetamine (MXE), a ketamine analog, and several of its metabolites in blood, urine, and gastric contents. MXE concentrations were 3.6 ng/mL in blood, 70.5 ng/mL in urine, and 18.0 ng/mL in gastric content. No other drugs or poisons were found, so despite the low blood level, MXE likely contributed to the death. The case shows that MXE and its metabolites can be detected in a decomposing body even after two months.
Journal of analytical toxicology
March 1, 2024
Madeleine E Wood, Glenna J Brown, Erin L Karschner et al.
4 citations
A new high-throughput urine screening and confirmation method detects psilocin, mitragynine, phencyclidine, ketamine, norketamine, and dehydronorketamine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Automated liquid handling with dispersive pipette extraction tips prepares screening samples, while offline solid-phase extraction handles confirmation samples. The method achieves limits of detection between 1-5 ng/mL for screening and 1 ng/mL for confirmation, using smaller specimen volumes than previous methods. Validation followed ANSI/ASB Standard 036 for forensic toxicology. Automation improves throughput and quality assurance, making the method suitable for workplace drug testing, human performance, and postmortem laboratories needing robust analysis of these traditionally challenging analytes.
Journal of analytical toxicology
May 20, 2024
Linhao Xu, Hui Yan, Yiling Tang et al.
3 citations
Since the 2000s, more new psychoactive substances have appeared on the illicit drug market. β-Keto-arylcyclohexylamine compounds, which have pharmacological roles in anesthesia, are increasingly used recreationally, but detailed toxicity data are lacking. Analyzing their metabolites can help forensic personnel determine whether someone has taken these illicit substances. This study examined the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of three such compounds: deschloro-N-ethyl-ketamine, fluoro-N-ethyl-ketamine, and bromoketamine. Using zebrafish and human liver microsomes, 49 metabolites were identified via liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Hydroxy-deschloro-N-ethyl-ketamine, hydroxy-fluoro-N-ethyl-ketamine, and hydroxy-bromoketamine are recommended as biomarkers for documenting intake in clinical and forensic cases.
Journal of analytical toxicology
August 13, 2022
Laurène Dufayet, Jérôme Langrand, Jean-Claude Alvarez et al.
3 citations
A 46-year-old man experienced a brief loss of consciousness and visual hallucinations after taking three tablets of the hallucinogenic tryptamine derivative 5-MeO-DALT, purchased online. Laboratory analysis quantified 32.5 mg of the drug per tablet (11% purity) and 7 ng/mL in the patient's plasma 8 hours after consumption. Poisonings from 5-MeO-DALT are rarely reported, but the broad availability of such products means emergency physicians and clinical toxicologists should consider recreational tryptamine ingestion, especially because most routine toxicological screenings do not detect them.
Journal of analytical toxicology
May 16, 2025
Hsueh-Hui Yang, Chia-Sui Kao, Ahai C Lua et al.
2 citations
A green method using liquid-liquid microextraction with 1-undecanol and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry detected ketamine and its metabolites in human urine without derivatization. Detection limits were 1.0 ng/mL for ketamine, 1.5 ng/mL for norketamine, and 1.7 ng/mL for dehydronorketamine. Analysis of eight real urine samples from drug abusers showed acceptable accuracy and precision. The findings suggest that detecting dehydronorketamine may be more suitable than detecting norketamine or ketamine for judging ketamine abuse. The method is simple, fast, and uses little solvent, addressing the need for green analytical techniques in toxicology.
Journal of analytical toxicology
June 11, 2024
Xue Qin Ng, Evelyn Mei Ling Goh, Asimah Hamzah et al.
2 citations
Detecting LSD use through urinalysis is difficult because LSD is rapidly metabolized and rarely appears in urine. Instead, its primary metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD is usually detected. In this study, iso-LSD, a contaminant from illicit LSD preparation, was found alongside 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD in many urine samples, often at higher abundance. Metabolism experiments with human liver microsomes showed that iso-LSD breaks down more slowly than LSD, and analysis of 24 authentic urine samples detected iso-LSD in 18 of them, sometimes with traces of a possible metabolite. The slower metabolism and high detection rate suggest iso-LSD is a viable urinary biomarker for confirming LSD consumption, especially when LSD or 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD are absent.
Journal of analytical toxicology
May 19, 2023
Xuan Luo, Di Zhang, Fang Zhang et al.
2 citations
Using mass spectrometry and theoretical calculations, 17 oxidative metabolites of the drug 2-fluorodeschloroketamine (2-FDCK) were identified in human urine and grouped into four categories. The study clarified how the site of oxidative metabolism relates to the electron cloud density in the molecule. Two mirror-image forms of a related compound, dihydro-2-FDCK, were distinguished using a lab-made reference standard and computational predictions. The work also revealed which enzymes favor particular molecular shapes during hydrogenation in the body. These findings provide a foundation for identifying metabolites of similar ketamine-type drugs.
Journal of analytical toxicology
July 9, 2025
Jade Pullen, Robert Moore, Rebecca Wood et al.
1 citation
Two deaths in the UK following DMT use occurred in the context of polydrug use, with both cases involving additional compounds that can increase serotonergic drive, potentially causing serotonin syndrome. DMT was detected in femoral blood at 0.23 mg/l and 0.24 mg/l. One case involved cocaine and amphetamine; the other involved venlafaxine and mirtazapine. A literature search found three previous fatalities after DMT use, all accidental, two during ayahuasca ceremonies. Polydrug use is increasingly common, and users of unregulated drugs should exercise caution when combining them with other unregulated drugs or prescribed medications.
Journal of analytical toxicology
July 22, 2023
Alice Ameline, Morgane Baudry, Delphine Garnier et al.
1 citation
A 38-year-old man with a history of drug addiction was found dead at home with two bags of powder. Toxicological analysis of his blood detected 3-hydroxyphencyclidine (3-OH-PCP) at 524 ng/mL, the highest concentration ever reported in the literature. Other drugs found in his blood included nordiazepam, methylphenidate, amisulpride, methadone, and benzoylecgonine at levels typical of recreational abuse. Hair testing showed 3-OH-PCP at 174 pg/mg, suggesting chronic use. Analysis of the powders identified 3-OH-PCP and 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine with purities of 85.4% and 91.3%, respectively. 3-OH-PCP is a derivative of phencyclidine that acts on the NMDA receptor with higher affinity than phencyclidine.
Journal of analytical toxicology
June 4, 2026
David A Barajas, Heather C Noda Carter, Michael R Tomedi et al.
Psilocin, the active metabolite of psilocybin, binds to serotonin receptors and induces hallucinogenic effects. In urine, most psilocin is excreted as psilocin-O-glucuronide, which must be converted back to free psilocin for testing. This conversion is challenging due to psilocin's chemical instability. The study compared enzymatic hydrolysis using one conventional β-glucuronidase from E. coli and three recombinant enzymes (IMCSZyme, Kura Biotech-BGTurbo, and Kura Biotech-B-One) on human urine samples. Recombinant enzymes performed far better than the conventional one. Kura Biotech-BGTurbo hydrolyzed fastest at 25-50°C, while IMCSZyme worked consistently across 25-80°C. The results offer practical guidelines for forensic labs to improve psilocin testing.
Journal of analytical toxicology
March 15, 2026
Aurora Balloni, Sarah M R Wille, Giorgia Sprega et al.
MDMA (Ecstasy) is broken down and cleared from the body at different rates for its two mirror-image forms. In oral fluid from 161 samples, the S-(+)-enantiomer of MDMA was eliminated faster (half-life 3.3 hours) than the R-(-)-enantiomer (half-life 4.8 hours). Both reached peak levels within 1.75 hours after taking the drug. For the metabolite MDA, the second enantiomer cleared more quickly (half-life 9.6 hours) than the first (23.8 hours). The ratio of R to S MDMA increased over time, which could help estimate when the drug was taken. In roadside checks, 54.5% of cases had an R/S ratio above 1.5, suggesting use within the prior 24 hours.
Journal of analytical toxicology
September 1, 2014
John L Krstenansky, Miguel Muzzio
Smoking dried Salvia divinorum leaf delivers only about 5% of the salvinorin A present in the plant material. An 830 mg cigarette containing roughly 2.7 mg of salvinorin A delivered on average 133 μg of the compound in the smoke. Hydrolysis converts some salvinorin A to inactive salvinorin B during smoking, with more salvinorin B (217 μg) than salvinorin A (133 μg) delivered per cigarette. Because smoking produces hallucinogenic effects and salvinorin A is the presumed active ingredient, the estimated effective inhaled dose is less than 133 μg per person. Rapid metabolism in the body means the dose reaching the brain is substantially lower.