Forensic science international
March 20, 2011
Martin M Schmidt, Akhilesh Sharma, Fabrizio Schifano et al.
198 citations
A survey of UK-based internet retailers found 1,308 products marketed as "legal highs," averaging £9.69. Most were pills (46.6%), smoking material (29.7%), or plant extracts (18.1%), and claimed to be stimulants (41.7%), sedatives (32.3%), or hallucinogens (12.9%). Safety information was severely lacking: 40.1% failed to list ingredients, 91.9% omitted side effects, 81.9% gave no contraindications, and 86.3% no drug interactions. The most common products included Salvia divinorum, Kratom, Hawaiian Baby Woodrose Seeds, Fly Agaric, and Genie. The authors conclude that uninformed users risk serious adverse effects.
Forensic science international
April 10, 2013
Dariusz Zuba, Karolina Sekuła, Agnieszka Buczek
128 citations
A new hallucinogenic substance, 25C-NBOMe, was identified in blotter papers seized from the drug market using multiple analytical methods. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) showed a spectrum similar to other 25-NBOMe compounds, with dominant ions at m/z=150, 121, and 91. Derivatization helped determine the molecular mass, and liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) confirmed the exact molecular mass and chemical formula. MS/MS experiments showed the substance is an N-(2-methoxy)benzyl derivative of 2C-C. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) corroborated the identity, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy provided final structural elucidation.
Forensic science international
February 10, 2005
John M Wilson, Frank Mcgeorge, Susan Smolinske et al.
119 citations
A 23-year-old man who took the hallucinogen Foxy (5-MeO-DIPT) experienced sensory hallucinations of formication and paranoia, but not visual or auditory hallucinations. He received supportive care in the emergency department for 4 hours and was discharged without known lasting effects. Blood and urine analyses identified the drug and its metabolites. The serum concentration of 5-MeO-DIPT was 0.14 microg/mL, and the urine concentration was 1.6 microg/mL. A metabolite, 5-methoxy-indole acetic acid, was found in urine at 0.17 microg/mL. Three other related compounds were also detected in urine, including one tentatively identified as 5-hydroxy-diisopropyltryptamine.
Forensic science international
March 10, 2009
Jochen Beyer, Olaf H Drummer, Hans H Maurer
118 citations
Fatal plant poisonings are rare, though many plants contain dangerous alkaloids. Poisonings fall into three categories: accidental ingestions (often in children or from plant-mushroom mix-ups in adults), intentional ingestions (homicides and suicides), and abuse of plants for hallucinogenic effects. This review describes toxic alkaloids such as aconitine, atropine, coniine, colchicine, cytisine, dimethyltryptamine, harmine, harmaline, ibogaine, kawain, mescaline, scopolamine, and taxine, which are involved in fatal and non-fatal poisonings. It summarizes intoxication symptoms and reviews methods for detecting these substances in biological fluids.
Forensic science international
August 1, 2016
Sara Odoardi, Francesco Saverio Romolo, Sabina Strano-Rossi
91 citations
Between 2013 and 2015, 162 seizures of substances purchased online and confiscated by Italian police were analyzed. The most common substances were 3-MMC (22% of seizures) and 4-MEC (20%), followed by MDPV (12%). Other identified drugs included various cathinones, tryptamines, and diphenidine, which was detected for the first time in Europe. Only three seizures contained synthetic cannabinoids. Some mixtures contained multiple NPS, and in nine cases tablets also contained sildenafil. The findings indicate a wide influx of NPS into Italy from abroad, posing a public health threat, especially when contents are mislabeled or unreported.
Forensic science international
March 1, 2018
David E Nichols, Charles S Grob
86 citations
LSD is physiologically non-toxic and medically safe at standard doses (50-200 μg). Five sudden deaths previously attributed to LSD toxicity were actually caused by other factors: two from massive overdoses, two from fatal cardiovascular collapse after agitated individuals were placed in maximal physical restraint positions (hog-tying) by police, and one from extreme hyperthermia likely due to a substituted drug (e.g., 25i-NBOMe) that affects central nervous system temperature regulation. Accurate understanding of these fatalities is important given renewed therapeutic interest in LSD and other psychedelics.
Forensic science international
December 17, 2003
Kenji Tsujikawa, Tatsuyuki Kanamori, Yuko Iwata et al.
79 citations
Hallucinogenic mushrooms circulating in Japan were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography. Psilocybe cubensis contained psilocin (0.14–0.42%) and psilocybin (0.37–1.30%) in the whole mushroom, with higher concentrations in the cap than the stem. Copelandia species contained psilocin (0.43–0.76%) and psilocybin (0.08–0.22%) in the whole mushroom, again with more alkaloid in the cap. Psilocybe cubensis is psilocybin-rich, while Copelandia is psilocin-rich. The combination of SEM and optical microscopy was effective for observing characteristic fungal tissues such as basidiomycetes, spores, cystidia, and basidia.
Forensic science international
September 11, 2000
F Musshoff, B Madea, J Beike
76 citations
Confiscated magic mushrooms were analyzed using multiple methods. Psilocybe cubensis was the most common species, followed by Psilocybe semilanceata, Panaeolus cyanescens, and Psilocybe tampanensis. Alkaloid content ranged from less than 0.003% to 1.15% psilocybin and 0.01% to 0.90% psilocin. Panaeolus cyanescens contained the highest levels of both psilocybin and psilocin.
Forensic science international
August 14, 2000
C Giroud, F Felber, M Augsburger et al.
70 citations
Salvia divinorum, a hallucinogenic mint used traditionally by the Mazatec Indians of Mexico, has appeared in Switzerland in illicit hemp plantations and horticulturists' greenhouses. Young people in Mexican cities have smoked its dried leaves as a marijuana substitute. The active compound, salvinorin A, was identified in plant extracts. These findings suggest multiple attempts to use S. divinorum as a recreational drug in Switzerland, possibly because neither the plant nor its active compound are banned under Swiss narcotic law.
Forensic science international
July 1, 2009
Chris Kostakis, Roger W Byard
56 citations
A 24-year-old man died after injecting what he believed was MDMA (ecstasy), but toxicology revealed no MDMA in his blood or the injected material. Instead, low levels of bufotenine—a toxin from toad secretions—and three bufadienolides (resibufogenin, cinobufagin, bufalin) were found in the injected substance. The presence of paracetamol, promethazine, and diclofenac matched ingredients in Chan Su, a traditional Chinese toad-venom product often adulterated with pharmaceuticals. This case highlights the risks of unknown street-drug compositions and the challenges of detecting low-level organic toxins in postmortem samples, requiring targeted screening guided by scene information.
Forensic science international
July 1, 2015
José Coelho Neto
51 citations
Blotter papers seized on the streets were tested directly with ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, without any sample preparation. Both sides of each blotter were examined. In 66.7% of cases, the blotters contained one or more types of NBOMEs, confirming the growing presence of these novel substances. Some blotters contained MAL (methallylescaline), a mescaline-like compound, later confirmed by GC-MS or LC-MS. LSD was below the detection limit of the method. The ATR-FTIR results were validated against independent GC-MS or LC-MS results.
Forensic science international
December 20, 2006
Kenji Tsujikawa, Hiroyuki Mohri, Kenji Kuwayama et al.
51 citations
Chemical analysis of seven Amanita mushrooms sold in Japan (five Amanita muscaria and two Amanita pantherina) and four products labeled as extracts of A. muscaria found that the mushrooms contained the dissociative compounds ibotenic acid and muscimol at varying levels, with caps having higher concentrations than stems and flesh more than cuticle. In contrast, the extract products contained little to none of these compounds but instead held other psychoactive substances, including tryptamines, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and tropane alkaloids, indicating adulteration.
Forensic science international
July 1, 2021
Thomas Gicquel, Camille Richeval, Vadim Mesli et al.
45 citations
A 42-year-old man was found dead at home with bags of 'research chemicals' powders. Toxicological analysis identified three new psychoactive substances (NPS) in his system: 2-fluoro-deschloroketamine (2F-DCK), 3-methoxyeticyclidine (3-MeO-PCE), and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), each with purity above 95%. Peripheral blood concentrations were 1780 µg/L for 2F-DCK, 90 µg/L for 3-MeO-PCE, and 52 µg/L for 5-MeO-DMT. The death was attributed to respiratory depression from a 'cocktail effect' of these substances combined with amphetamine and cocaine. Hair analysis showed a pattern of addiction over several months. This case provides analytical data to aid interpretation in future forensic cases involving arylcyclohexylamine derivatives.
Forensic science international
June 1, 2021
Serena Mestria, Sara Odoardi, Giulia Biosa et al.
30 citations
Three novel ketamine analogues—methoxpropamine, 2-fluoro-deschloroketamine, and deschloroketamine—were identified in post-mortem blood and hair samples from a suicide by fall from height, using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The analysis also detected several of their metabolites. These substances belong to the β-keto-arylcyclohexamine class of new psychoactive substances (NPS), which are often sold as 'research chemicals' and may be consumed unintentionally by buyers unaware of product contents. The work provides analytical methods for detecting these compounds and their metabolites, offering a foundation for studying their toxicokinetics.
Forensic science international
January 1, 2020
Bruna De Souza Boff, Jair Silveira Filho, Karina Nonemacher et al.
29 citations
Between 2011 and 2017, blotter papers seized in Santa Catarina, Brazil, increasingly contained a wide variety of new psychoactive substances (NPS) rather than LSD alone. In 2011, all blotters contained LSD; by 2014 only 0.1% did, and by 2017 LSD was found in 17.6% of blotters, while up to 25 different substances were detected. These included DOx, NBOMe, fentanyl, mescaline derivatives, triptamines, cathinones, and synthetic cannabinoids, sometimes mixed in a single blotter. The number of seizure events rose from 87 in 2011 to 301 in 2016 and 277 in 2017. The shift may reflect that many NPS were not illegal under Brazilian law when they first appeared.
Forensic science international
March 21, 2008
Marjorie Chèze, Aurélie Lenoan, Marc Deveaux et al.
28 citations
A 37-year-old man was found dead on a beach in Gabon after consuming iboga, a plant from the Apocynaceae family. Autopsy showed drowning and a heart abnormality (myocardial bridging). Ibogaine and its metabolite noribogaine were detected in all autopsy samples—blood, urine, bile, gastric content, liver, lungs, vitreous, spleen, and hair—using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Hair analysis found 1.2 ng/mg of ibogaine and 2.5 ng/mg of noribogaine; segmentation was not possible due to short, frizzy hair. No other drugs or alcohol were present. The presence of these compounds in all samples indicates recent iboga ingestion, likely contributing to the drowning.
Forensic science international
October 10, 2012
Dariusz Zuba, Karolina Sekuła, Agnieszka Buczek
26 citations
A powder sample seized by Polish authorities in 2011 was identified as the hallucinogen 2,5-dimethoxy-4-nitro-β-phenethylamine (2C-N). Mass spectrometry confirmed its molecular mass, and gas chromatography and liquid chromatography produced characteristic ion patterns. Infrared spectroscopy showed two broad bands from the nitro group, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy unequivocally determined the molecular structure. The analytical approach proved effective for characterizing new designer drugs.
Forensic science international
January 1, 2021
Vinícius L Meira, Adriana S De Oliveira, Luciana S A Cohen et al.
25 citations
Between 2006 and 2019, blotter papers seized by police in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, were chemically and geographically mapped. Before 2014, most contained LSD and were concentrated in the metropolitan region. From 2014 to 2017, NBOMe-family compounds became dominant during a surge in seizures. NBOH compounds first appeared in 2016 in coastal tourist areas, with over 1300 items seized in 2017 alone. Only one synthetic cannabinoid was found. The most common new psychoactive substances were synthetic phenethylamines from the 25I-NBOH and 25I-NBOMe families. Chemical and statistical analyses revealed shifting drug profiles and movement patterns across the state.
Forensic science international
June 1, 2024
Guillaume Drevin, Jean-Michel Gaulier, Florian Hakim et al.
21 citations
A 36-year-old man was drugged and sexually assaulted; the novel synthetic cathinone N-ethyl-pentedrone (NEPD) was found in his blood and urine. Five synthetic cathinones have been linked to drug-facilitated sexual assault: methylenedioxypyrovalerone, 4-methylethcathinone, α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone, mephedrone, α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone, and methylone—the most common. Methylone, a β-keto analog of MDMA, shares its entactogenic effects. NEPD, however, produces only slightly entactogenic effects in a minority of users, making it more suited to chemsex than to drug-facilitated sexual assault, though the boundary between these contexts can be blurry.
Forensic science international
September 1, 2016
Thomas Gicquel, Chloé Hugbart, Françoise Le Devehat et al.
20 citations
A 30-year-old woman died after consuming a powder she bought online that was labeled as iboga (Tabernanthe iboga). Analysis of the powder found no ibogaine but instead contained toxic alkaloids—ajmaline, yohimbine, and reserpine—which are characteristic of Rauvolfia plant species. Blood concentrations were 109.1 ng/mL ajmaline, 98.2 ng/mL yohimbine, and 30.8 ng/mL reserpine; bile concentrations were much higher. The death was attributed to ingesting a substantial quantity of crushed Rauvolfia roots combined with concomitant drug withdrawal.
Forensic science international
December 1, 2021
J M Matey, Gemma Montalvo, Carmen García-ruiz et al.
19 citations
Among people who test positive for ketamine, polyconsumption of other drugs and new psychoactive substances (NPS) is common. Reanalyzing hair samples from ten former cases—all defendants accused of crimes against public health—using high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS/MS) with a methanolic incubation extraction detected additional NPS not found in the original gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. The additional substances included other arylcyclohexylamines (deschloroketamine, 3-MeO-PCP, methoxetamine) and cathinones (methylmetcathinone, N-ethyl-pentylone). The new method demonstrated its benefits for NPS prevalence studies.
Forensic science international
April 1, 2015
Rafael Hernández-bello, Rosa Virginia García-rodríguez, Karlina García-sosa et al.
19 citations
Salvia divinorum products sold as legal highs in Mexico vary widely in their content of the hallucinogenic compound salvinorin A, and declared potencies often do not match measured amounts. Using an HPLC method, concentrations ranged from 8.32 to 56.52 mg/g dried leaf across brands. One brand showed no agreement between its declared and actual salvinorin A content. The emergence of high-strength products (100×), lack of regulation, and this variability could pose health risks to consumers, especially given the potential for psychosis.
Forensic science international
September 1, 2014
Fernando Xavier Moreira, Félix Carvalho, Maria De Lourdes Bastos et al.
13 citations
Products containing the hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum, sold legally in smartshops and online, often mislead consumers about their potency and composition. Analysis of 10 such products, labeled with potencies from 5x to 60x, found that salvinorin A was the primary hallucinogen, along with three related compounds. Labeled concentrations of salvinorin A frequently did not match the actual amounts, and the true concentrations far exceeded the level needed to produce hallucinogenic effects. Safety information was often omitted, encouraging recreational use without adequate warnings.
Forensic science international
December 1, 2022
Luiz Ferreira Neves Junior, André Luis Fabris, Ingrid Lopes Barbosa et al.
10 citations
LSD prodrugs are emerging as new psychoactive substances in Brazil. Nine blotter paper samples seized by police in São Paulo State were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The compound was identified as ALD-52 (1A-LSD), an LSD prodrug not controlled by Brazilian legislation, with no other active substances detected. These findings indicate a rising strategy in the designer drug market that warrants attention.
Forensic science international
April 1, 2022
R Goncalves, N Castaing, C Richeval et al.
10 citations
Methoxpropamine (MXPr), a dissociative drug similar to ketamine, was identified for the first time in France in urine, hair, and powder samples using nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry. In vitro experiments with pooled human liver microsomes and in silico predictions revealed three metabolites: N-despropyl(nor)MXPr, O-desmethyl MXPr, and dihydroMXPr. These metabolites were also detected in urine and hair from a consumer. The work highlights the challenge of identifying new psychoactive substances when they are absent from compound libraries and demonstrates that combining complementary analytical methods with high-resolution mass spectrometry is a promising approach for their molecular characterization.