Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2017
459 citations
The psychological, social, and cultural factors known as set and setting shape responses to psychedelic drugs and also influence the effects of other substances like alcohol, heroin, amphetamines, and cocaine. This paper traces the concept's history from 19th-century Parisian hashish clubs through 1950s psychotomimetic research and the work of psychedelic therapists, to its formal articulation by Timothy Leary. Later expansions are discussed, and the term collective set and setting is proposed to describe social forces shaping individual experiences. The concept is argued to be essential for psychedelic research, broader drug research, and more effective drug policy.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2018
Torsten Passie
115 citations
MDMA, also known as ecstasy, was first made in 1912 but became popular as a legal substitute for the illegal recreational drug MDA in 1970. Between 1977 and 1985, while still legal, a few dozen psychotherapists in the United States used MDMA for its benign, feeling-enhancing, and nonhallucinatory properties. This article examines the contexts and practices of that psychotherapeutic use. Some guidelines and precautions developed then are similar to those for psychedelic drugs, while others are specific to MDMA. The pioneering therapists developed techniques for individual and group therapy that laid the groundwork for later scientific studies, and the perceived beneficial effects of MDMA helped revive psycholytic/psychedelic therapy internationally.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2020
59 citations
Public and scientific interest in psychedelic drugs increased steadily over two decades and then grew exponentially in recent years, with 2019 bringing notable changes in science, industry, and deregulation. The article synthesizes these developments, including the establishment of psychedelic research centers, novel drug applications, and international expansion that solidified the field's place in science. Business and pharmaceutical industries stimulated considerable investment and innovation in psychedelics for the first time. In the US, successful decriminalization efforts and endorsements by political figures like Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Andrew Yang, and heads of the NIH and FDA represented unprecedented regulatory changes. The article serves as a summary of emerging research themes, industrial innovations, and attitude shifts in 2019.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2017
James W. B. Elsey
59 citations
Psychedelic drugs may enhance well-being in healthy individuals, not just treat mental health problems. Contemporary research on neurobiological and subjective effects in healthy people suggests potential benefits for well-being, while the low risk of use contrasts with strict drug laws and heavy penalties. The review considers policy implications and future research directions.
Drug Science Policy and Law
March 24, 2015
Ben Sessa, Friederike Meckel Fischer
39 citations
Despite LSD and MDMA being banned in the 1960s and 1980s, underground psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy continued in Europe. This article describes a Zurich-based psychotherapist who provided individual and group psycholytic psychotherapy for several years before her arrest in 2009. The authors comment on the psychopharmacological, moral, ethical, and legal issues of the case, situating them within the growing medical research on psychedelic substances as mainstream psychiatric treatments.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2022
Jeremy Roscoe, Olivia Lozy
30 citations
A systematic review of 52 clinical trials found that none reported psilocybin to be unsafe when administered under medical supervision. Twenty-seven of the trials suggested that psilocybin is safe to administer in a controlled medical setting. The review assessed whether psilocybin meets the schedule I criterion of lacking accepted safety for use under medical supervision, and the evidence from these trials does not support that designation. No adverse events or safety concerns were reported that would indicate the drug is unsafe when given by a medical professional.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2019
Jacob S. Aday, Christopher C. Davoli, Emily K. Bloesch
30 citations
Interest in psychedelic drug research grew over the last decade, but 2018 marked a true turning point for the field, especially in the United States. That year saw substantive advances in scientific, public, and regulatory communities. Scientific progress came from impactful research applications and acknowledgment in top journals. Michael Pollan's book "How to Change Your Mind" became a commercial hit and spurred positive media coverage. Unprecedented psychedelic ballot initiatives reflected shifting public interest. Regulatory bodies began acknowledging psychedelic science in earnest, highlighted by the FDA granting psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy "breakthrough therapy" status for treatment-resistant depression. 2018 was a seminal year for psychedelic science.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2023
Octavian Dixon Ritchie, Cameron N Donley, Gabrielle Dixon Ritchie
21 citations
No Summary
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2020
Natasha L. Mason, Patrick C. Dolder, Kim P. C. Kuypers
15 citations
Psychedelics like LSD and psilocybin are most often used at home, while MDMA is more common at parties or festivals. Most people take these substances when already in a positive mood, and their mood stays positive or shifts to positive afterward. Individuals with low psychological well-being are more likely to experience a positive mood change after using LSD, psilocybin, or MDMA compared to those with normal well-being. Higher neuroticism scores are linked to both a greater likelihood of positive mood change and a greater likelihood of negative side effects. The findings suggest that psychedelic use can yield positive outcomes even in people with lower well-being and higher neuroticism.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2022
Christina Sagioglou, Matthias Forstmann
12 citations
People who have used psychedelic substances, especially psilocybin, show greater objective knowledge about climate change and more concern about it, partly because they feel more connected to nature. An online survey of 641 international participants assessed lifetime use of 30 psychoactive substances and three pro-environmental measures: nature relatedness, climate change concern, and objective climate knowledge. After controlling for age, education, and other substance use, psychedelic use directly predicted climate knowledge and indirectly predicted both knowledge and concern through nature relatedness. These findings indicate that the link between psychedelics and pro-environmental attitudes is not merely due to bias or stereotypes.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2024
Simon Ruffell, Sam Gandy, WaiFung Tsang et al.
10 citations
Participating in ayahuasca retreats in a traditional Indigenous Amazonian context was associated with significant increases in nature relatedness and improvements in depression and stress, but not anxiety. A moderate negative correlation indicated that greater increases in nature relatedness were linked to lower stress levels. The study involved a mean of 6.31 ceremonies. It remains unclear whether changes resulted from the ayahuasca brew, the ceremonies, or the retreat setting. The findings suggest a potential therapeutic role for such retreats as a multidimensional intervention, but further research is needed to identify mediators and assess long-term effects.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2024
Ksenia Cassidy, C. J. Healy, Eva Henje et al.
10 citations
A history of childhood trauma does not increase the risk of having a challenging experience during acute ayahuasca effects, nor does it affect posttraumatic growth afterward. In a survey of 231 adults (average age 40, 48% women), those with childhood trauma histories reported no more adverse or challenging experiences during ayahuasca use than those without such histories. Additionally, the degree of challenge during the acute experience was not linked to greater ayahuasca-related posttraumatic growth. These findings suggest that childhood trauma exposure may not carry the same risk for poor treatment response to ayahuasca as it does for other interventions.
Drug Science Policy and Law
September 1, 2025
David Nutt, David Erritzøe, Anne Katrin Schlag et al.
9 citations
The field of psychedelic research lacks standardized terminology for clinical development, dosing, safety monitoring, and regulatory classification. A comprehensive framework is proposed that classifies psychedelics by pharmacology (serotonergic, glutamatergic, kappaergic, GABAergic, and atypical), introduces dose-dependent categories (microdose, minidose, mididose, macrodose), and standardizes terms like “short-acting” with specific pharmacokinetic parameters. Safety considerations include cardiovascular and psychological effects, with risk mitigation protocols for higher-risk compounds like ibogaine. A three-phase treatment model—preparation, dosing, and integration—is recommended as a minimum standard. The lack of comparative research on psychotherapy modalities is identified as a critical gap.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2022
Plinio Ferreira, Adam Winstock, Anne Katrin Schlag et al.
9 citations
Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and alkyl nitrites (poppers) rank among the least harmful recreational drugs when assessed on 16 criteria including dependence, injury, and economic cost. An expert panel using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis scored nitrous oxide at 6 and poppers at 5 on a 0–100 overall harm scale, placing them just above magic mushrooms (psilocybin). Nitrous oxide scored higher for dependence, environmental damage, mental impairment, and family adversities; poppers scored higher for injury, drug-related damage, economic cost, and mortality. The findings aim to inform UK policy decisions, as nitrous oxide possession is not currently controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2022
FL Smith, JC Neill, V Wainwright
9 citations
Veterans with trauma symptoms often find standard treatments inaccessible or ineffective and may turn to psilocybin. Interviews with seven veterans who had used or considered using psilocybin revealed that all perceived barriers to conventional care, and many considered psilocybin out of desperation. Those who had used psilocybin reported immediate and long-term improvements in their symptoms. The findings suggest that psilocybin may be a viable treatment option for some, but further clinical trials are needed to confirm its therapeutic potential.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2020
Jec Anthony, Adam Winstock, Ja Ferris et al.
9 citations
People with color blindness have reported improvements after using psychedelic drugs like LSD and psilocybin. In the Global Drugs Survey 2017, 47 respondents provided useful descriptions, and 23 reported improved color blindness. Some said the effect lasted from days to years. The improvement may result from new visual experiences (photisms) during the psychedelic state linking with existing color concepts, possibly due to enhanced connections between visual and language brain areas. This preliminary data suggests further investigation is warranted.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2023
Brian S. Barnett, Noah Wiles Sweat, Peter S. Hendricks
6 citations
A person with red-green color blindness (mild deuteranomalia) self-administered the Ishihara color vision test before and after taking 5 grams of dried psilocybin mushrooms. Partial improvement in color vision peaked at 8 days and lasted at least 16 days after taking psilocybin, though later observations were confounded by additional substance use. The improvement extended beyond the acute drug effect, even though color blindness is typically a genetic condition. The authors call for systematic research to confirm these findings and understand the mechanism.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2023
Benjamin A. Korman
5 citations
Immigrants face mental and physical health burdens during acculturation, and classic psychedelics may help them process discrimination, make healthier decisions, and feel more connected. This literature review outlines a research roadmap for exploring how psychedelics could benefit this growing minority group, based on initial findings.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2023
Jaden Brandt
5 citations
Rapid advances in psychedelic medicine research compel healthcare leaders and legislators to plan how to expand access to these treatments while ensuring safety and effectiveness. The pharmacy profession has been largely absent from these discussions. This commentary reviews potential strategies for legal reform, professional regulation, and pharmacy operations concerning psilocybin and MDMA, using Canada as an example. It outlines possible paths for policy creation and clinical practice changes needed to integrate these agents into healthcare systems.
Drug Science Policy and Law
April 1, 2025
Sean M Vina
4 citations
Racial and ethnic minorities appear to gain fewer mental health benefits from psychedelic use compared to non-Hispanic Whites, and in some cases psychedelic use is linked to worse mental health among Black and Asian populations. Analyzing data from the National Survey of Drug Use and Health (2005–2019) on nearly 600,000 individuals, the study examined associations between various psychedelics and outcomes including depression, suicidal ideation, and psychological distress. While psychedelic use was associated with better mental health among non-Hispanic Whites, there were fewer such positive associations among Black, Hispanic, and Asian individuals, and just as many instances where use was linked to worse mental health, especially for Black and Asian groups.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2024
Torsten Passie
4 citations
The so-called psychedelic renaissance has revived interest in therapies using drugs like LSD and psilocybin. In 1960s and 1970s Europe, the dominant approach was psycholytic therapy, which used serial low-dose sessions embedded in long-term psychotherapy, grounded in psychoanalysis. Today, this method is largely neglected in favor of high-dose psychedelic peak therapy with minimal psychotherapy. The European Medical Society for Psycholytic Therapy (EPT), founded in 1965, coordinated LSD therapists, promoted professional exchange, and aimed to develop treatment and training standards, yet its history has been virtually undocumented. The author reconstructs the EPT's history from unique archival resources to inform future standards.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2018
Edward James, Thomas L Robertshaw, Andrew D. Westwell et al.
4 citations
A survey of 105 UK nationals found that participants viewed pharmacists, supported by general practitioners and mental health workers, as the most suitable vendors for cannabis, MDMA, and psilocybin, compared to regulated shops or the black market. Support for selling cannabis in pharmacies for therapeutic and harm reduction purposes averaged 7.0 out of 10. Participants with a university education were more in favor of pharmacy sales for alcohol (5.6), tobacco (6.7), cannabis (7.6), MDMA (6.5), and psilocybin (6.5) than those without a university qualification (alcohol 5.0, tobacco 4.8, cannabis 6.3, MDMA 5.0, psilocybin 5.1). The findings suggest that university-educated participants support treating recreational drug use as a health issue.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2022
Rayyan Zafar, Dustin Sulak, Jaime Brambila et al.
3 citations
A 49-year-old woman with metastatic breast cancer (ER+, PR-, HER2+, BRCA-) received targeted chemotherapy and a ketogenic diet for 26 months, then added a high-dose cannabinoid regimen (CBD and THC) and psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy. After five months, PET/CT scans showed no evidence of metastatic disease, and chemotherapy was stopped. A one-year follow-up CT found no residual or recurrent disease. Recurrence appeared at 18 months, when the cannabis dose had been reduced to 60% of the initial protocol; increasing it back to the original dose was followed by receding cancer progression over 16 months. The case suggests potential therapeutic utility of adjunctive cannabinoids and psychedelics in metastatic breast cancer.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2019
Edward James, Thomas L Robertshaw, Michael Pascoe et al.
3 citations
A survey of 105 UK nationals found that perceptions of relative harm for alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, MDMA, and psilocybin did not match the harm rankings reported in scientific literature. Participants ranked tobacco as most harmful, followed by MDMA, psilocybin, alcohol, and cannabis, whereas the literature ranks alcohol as most harmful, then tobacco, cannabis, MDMA, and psilocybin. Objections to legal pharmacy sales included concerns about sending the wrong message, danger, and disapproval of psychoactive drug use for entertainment or mystical experiences. Most male participants considered legal access to alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and psilocybin a human right, while most female participants considered only alcohol a human right. Misperceptions and biases likely sustain policies misaligned with research.
Drug Science Policy and Law
January 1, 2026
Sam Lasham, Rhys Ponton
1 citation
Drug control laws introduced since the early twentieth century reduce non-medical use and drug-associated harm but unjustly impact medical care and research. Restrictions on controlled drugs and prohibited plants in New Zealand, such as those under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, have limited clinical research on substances like MDMA, LSD, psilocybin, and DMT for decades. Beyond clinical applications, these legal restrictions also severely inhibit non-clinical research, as illustrated by the Act's impedance of research on mushroom-forming fungi in New Zealand.