Journal of forensic sciences
March 1, 2012
Kenneth R Alper, Marina Stajić, James R Gill
101 citations
Between 1990 and 2008, nineteen individuals died within 1.5 to 76 hours after taking ibogaine, a plant alkaloid used for opioid detoxification. The deaths did not show a characteristic pattern of nerve damage. In 12 of the 14 cases with sufficient autopsy data, advanced preexisting medical conditions—mainly heart disease—or the presence of other abused drugs explained or contributed to the death. Additional risk factors included seizures from alcohol or benzodiazepine withdrawal and use of unregulated traditional forms of ibogaine.
Journal of forensic sciences
January 1, 2015
Loraine R Togni, Rafael Lanaro, Rodrigo R Resende et al.
54 citations
Ecstasy tablets sold in São Paulo, Brazil, increasingly lack the expected MDMA. Analysis of 150 different seizures by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry found MDMA in only 44.7% of samples. Twenty other active substances were identified, including caffeine, 2C-B, piperazines, amphetamines, phencyclidine, and methamphetamine (present in 22% of samples). The results demonstrate a major shift in the synthetic drug trafficking pattern, with MDMA replaced mostly by other illicit psychoactive substances, likely to evade legal restrictions. This wide variability in tablet composition raises the risk of drug poisoning.
Journal of forensic sciences
November 1, 2009
Julia C Drees, Judy A Stone, Alan H B Wu
34 citations
A 39-year-old woman suffered a severe hemorrhagic stroke after using cocaine, MDMA, and 2C-I, a novel designer amine. Multi-targeted LC-MS/MS urine testing detected 2C-I and MDA, but ruled out MDMA. The stroke was caused by an underlying cerebrovascular condition called Moyamoya, exacerbated by substance abuse. Standard clinical confirmation tests often target only amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, and MDA. This case demonstrates the value of broader LC-MS/MS testing to better identify and understand the prevalence and toxic effects of emerging novel amines like 2C-I.
Journal of forensic sciences
May 1, 2020
Simon P Elliott, Tanith Holdbrook, Simon D Brandt
32 citations
The concept of a prodrug—a substance that metabolizes into an active drug—is well established in medicine but has recently extended to new psychoactive substances (NPS), posing forensic challenges. Prodrugs of NPS, such as 1-propanoyl-LSD, 1-butanoyl-LSD, 1-acetyl-LSD, and 2C-B-AN, have been developed and discussed in user forums and sold online. These substances complicate toxicological analysis of biological fluids and chemical analysis due to their instability or metabolism. While current monitoring data suggest prodrugs are not yet widespread or problematic, awareness of their potential impact and forensic implications is important for both chemical and toxicological considerations.
Journal of forensic sciences
November 1, 2013
Cédric Mazoyer, Jérémy Carlier, Alexandra Boucher et al.
26 citations
A man died twelve hours after ingesting powdered iboga root, a substance taken for its stimulant and hallucinogenic effects. Ibogaine and ibogamine were measured in the powder and the victim's body fluids using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Ibogaine concentrations in blood samples taken at the scene, peripheral blood, urine, and gastric fluid were 0.65, 1.27, 1.7, and 53.5 μg/mL, respectively; the powder contained 7.2% iboga. Diazepam and methadone were also present at therapeutic concentrations. Death was attributed to ingestion of a substantial quantity of iboga combined with methadone and diazepam.
Journal of forensic sciences
January 1, 2014
Sarah Kerrigan, Ashley Mott, Breanna Jatzlau et al.
20 citations
A new laboratory method using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) can detect 15 designer psychostimulants in urine at very low concentrations. The drugs include various 2C-phenethylamines, DOx amphetamines, and 4-MTA. Using solid-phase extraction, analytical recoveries ranged from 64% to 92%, and the limit of detection was 0.5 ng/mL for all drugs except 2C-B (1 ng/mL). The technique was evaluated for recovery, precision, accuracy, linearity, matrix effects, and interferences, enabling simultaneous detection of these substances at sub-ng/mL levels. Many such drugs are not targeted in routine toxicology testing and thus go unreported.
Journal of forensic sciences
January 1, 2013
Tatsuyuki Kanamori, Kyoko Nagasawa, Kenji Kuwayama et al.
20 citations
The main breakdown product of the hallucinogenic drug 2C-B in human urine is 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylacetic acid, accounting for 73% of detected metabolites. Two other metabolites, 4-bromo-2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenylacetic acid and 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethyl alcohol, made up 13% and 4.5% respectively. In contrast, the primary metabolites reported in rat urine were different compounds and appeared only in small amounts in humans, indicating species-specific differences in how 2C-B is processed. The most abundant human metabolite likely forms through deamination by monoamine oxidase (MAO) followed by oxidation, suggesting MAO plays a crucial role in human 2C-B metabolism.
Journal of forensic sciences
September 1, 2020
Tehila Mishraki-Berkowitz, Esti Kochelski, Pierce Kavanagh et al.
12 citations
Psilocin and bufotenine are naturally occurring controlled substances, while two other isomers (6-HO-DMT and 7-HO-DMT) are not classified as controlled substances. The four isomers were synthesized and analyzed using thin layer chromatography, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and gas chromatography mass spectroscopy. The methods successfully differentiated all four isomers. Analysis of forensic specimens suspected to be psilocybe mushrooms confirmed that psilocin can be unequivocally identified and its other isomers ruled out, providing accurate identification for forensic investigations.
Journal of forensic sciences
November 1, 2019
Antoinette S Spoelder, Jan K G Louwerens, Stefanie D Krens et al.
12 citations
Ingestion of the designer drug 2C-B by an 18-year-old man led to severe neurological consequences, including serotonin syndrome and severe brain edema. Although supportive therapy stabilized his condition, the patient suffered lasting severe neurological impairment months later. Routine drug screening in Dutch hospitals failed to detect 2C-B, highlighting a gap in identification. The case demonstrates that 2C-B carries risks of profound neurological damage that both users and healthcare providers may not recognize.
Journal of forensic sciences
September 1, 2011
Tatsuyuki Kanamori, Kenji Kuwayama, Kenji Tsujikawa et al.
10 citations
After oral administration to rats, the drug 2C-I is broken down into several metabolites through O-demethylation, N-acetylation, and deamination followed by oxidation to carboxylic acid. Five of these metabolites were synthesized in the lab and identified using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The findings will aid forensic analysis of 2C-I and its metabolites in biological samples.
Journal of forensic sciences
May 1, 2023
Shu-Hua Zhang, Angeline S Y Tang, Reenie S L Chin et al.
7 citations
Blotter papers once carried only LSD, but now contain related lysergamides such as ALD-52 and 1P-LSD. When these papers are analyzed by solvent extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, the solvent choice matters: methanol and ethanol cause ALD-52 to convert into LSD during analysis, while isopropyl alcohol prevents that conversion. The hydrolysis happens at the GC injector port and is more pronounced at lower concentrations (0.1 mg/mL). 1P-LSD also hydrolyzes to LSD, but is more stable than ALD-52 because its propanoyl group provides steric hindrance.
Journal of forensic sciences
March 1, 2025
Arianna Giorgetti, Susan Mohamed, Filippo Pirani et al.
6 citations
Among 88 people diagnosed with substance use disorder at an addiction treatment service in Bologna, Italy, hair analysis showed that 95.5% tested positive for at least one substance. Of those, 88.1% had only traditional drugs of abuse, while 11.9% also had new psychoactive substances (NPS). Polydrug use was common: 67.9% of positive samples contained more than two drugs. Combining traditional drugs with NPS was more frequent in younger patients (under 21–30 years old). Ketamine appeared in 8.0% of all samples, often alongside cocaine (85.7% of cases). Fentanyl was detected in 3.4% of samples. Among NPS, only buphedrone was found. NPS consumption was relatively low in this group, but the high rate of polydrug and ketamine-cocaine use warrants monitoring.
Journal of forensic sciences
July 1, 2024
Ananda da Silva Antonio, Gleicielle Tozzi Wurzler, Cecília de Andrade Bhering et al.
4 citations
Chemical profiles of ecstasy tablets seized in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, between 2012 and 2021 reveal MDMA and clobenzorex as the main active ingredients, with less common occurrences of MDA, MDEA, and 2C-B. A total of 27 combinations of cutting agents, including caffeine, ephedrine, and anesthetics, were identified. The occurrence of mega-events in the region altered the chemical fingerprints of the tablets. Samples containing clobenzorex appeared throughout the period in areas near highways, suggesting use primarily by truck drivers. These findings can assist police intelligence in anticipating illicit market changes during major events and identifying trafficking routes.
Journal of forensic sciences
March 1, 2017
Tatsuyuki Kanamori, Tadashi Yamamuro, Kenji Kuwayama et al.
4 citations
Two glucuronic acid-conjugated metabolites of the psychoactive phenethylamine 2C-B were chemically synthesized for the first time, and a method to analyze them in urine was developed. The β-D-glucuronide of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethylalcohol was synthesized using a glucuronyl donor and a Lewis acid catalyst; the β-D-glucuronide of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylacetic acid was produced by condensation followed by catalytic hydrogenation. Direct liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry of diluted urine allowed qualitative and semiquantitative evaluation of these metabolites. The simple method is expected to aid studies of 2C-B's metabolic fate.
Journal of forensic sciences
May 1, 2025
Diane M Moore, Alexander D Giachetti, M Elizabeth Zaney et al.
3 citations
Between September 2020 and July 2024, eight deaths in Miami-Dade County involved ingestion of colored powders called "tusi," "tucibi," or "pink cocaine." Fourteen powders, mostly pink with sweet or fruity aromas, were analyzed. Ketamine appeared in all powders, most also contained MDMA, and some included cocaine, opioids, benzodiazepines, or synthetic cathinones; none contained fentanyl or 2C-B. Five deaths were accidental (four drug overdoses, one fall), and three were suicides. All decedents had multiple drugs in their blood. Peripheral blood ketamine concentrations ranged from 0.38 to 8.8 mg/L, and MDMA from 0.10 to 3.0 mg/L. These cases illustrate the variable drug composition of "tusi" powders and their role in medicolegal death investigation.
Journal of forensic sciences
May 1, 2025
Munchelou M Gomonit, Madeleine J Swortwood, Michael T Truver et al.
3 citations
Ayahuasca's primary psychedelic alkaloid, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), is rapidly metabolized: oxidative deamination yields indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) as the main metabolite, and N-oxidation produces N,N-dimethyltryptamine-N-oxide (DMT-NO) as the second most abundant. A validated LC-MS/MS method quantified DMT, IAA, and DMT-NO in human plasma and DMT and DMT-NO in urine with high recovery (≥91%), low bias (±17.5%), and good precision (≤6.4%). In a proof-of-concept study using paired blood and urine samples, DMT and DMT-NO concentrations were higher in urine than plasma, reflecting rapid clearance. DMT and DMT-NO are proposed as direct biomarkers for exogenous DMT consumption; IAA should not be the sole biomarker due to its substantial endogenous presence.
Journal of forensic sciences
January 1, 2023
Ori Gutman, Dana Tenne, Uriel Bretler
2 citations
Routine analysis of an illicit drug sample unexpectedly showed both 4-acetoxy-DMT and psilocin. The authors hypothesized that the base used in sample preparation, not a true mixture, caused 4-acetoxy-DMT to hydrolyze into psilocin. Testing with ammonium hydroxide, pyridine, and sodium hydroxide confirmed that stronger bases (higher pH) increased the psilocin-to-4-acetoxy-DMT ratio, supporting degradation. Thermal decomposition was ruled out because 4-acetoxy-DMT remained stable at 200°C, the GC injection port temperature. The finding demonstrates how pre-injection laboratory procedures can inadvertently alter casework samples, urging caution in selecting reagents and processes for GC-MS analysis of such substances.
Journal of forensic sciences
September 1, 2024
Amy L Patton, Erin L Karschner, Jeffrey P Walterscheid et al.
1 citation
A validated LC-MS/MS method can detect LSD, its primary metabolite OH-LSD, and nine LSD analogs in urine with a limit of detection of 0.1 ng/mL. The method uses automated sample preparation and a modified analytical column and gradient. Analysis of 325 urine specimens found no LSD analogs, but the procedure is suitable for laboratories expanding their testing scope. Automated preparation reduces manual handling without increasing analytical time. Detection may improve as reference standards for metabolic products become available. The validated procedure supports routine analysis and surveillance of these emerging substances.
Journal of forensic sciences
November 18, 2025
Bogumiła Byrska, Karolina Masier, Roman Stanaszek
Ecstasy tablets shaped as "Stormtrooper" heads seized in Poland between 2020 and 2021 contained not only MDMA but also MDA and, for the first time in Polish seizures, a novel phenylethylamine derivative called MDDM. MDDM is a methyl analogue of MDMA and a dimethyl analogue of MDA with limited pharmacological data and reportedly mild psychoactive effects, likely arising as a by-product of illicit MDMA synthesis. Quantitative analysis showed MDA in the highest concentrations per tablet (26–74 mg), followed by MDDM (11–28 mg) and MDMA (3–11 mg). Although MDDM alone is considered low potency, its co-occurrence with other phenylethylamines may produce synergistic effects and increase toxicity. These findings highlight the unpredictable composition of street drugs and the need for continuous forensic monitoring.
Journal of forensic sciences
March 1, 2025
Eun-Mi Hwang, Kyu-Sik Jeong, Seong Yeon Yoo et al.
A full-length transcriptome of Lophophora williamsii (peyote) was generated using single-molecule real-time PCR and PacBio Iso-Seq, yielding 2,839,819 base pairs of long reads and 70,945 unigenes. Known genes in the mescaline biosynthetic pathway were confirmed, including 6 tyrosine decarboxylases, 1 tyrosine/DOPA decarboxylase, 215 O-methyltransferases, and 129 hydroxylases. Gene Ontology analysis identified 2903 biological processes, 695 cellular components, and 1766 molecular functions. KEGG pathway analysis linked phenylpropanoid and isoquinoline biosynthesis to mescaline production. Illumina Nova sequencing compared gene expression between mescaline-positive and mescaline-negative specimens to establish a candidate gene pool. The findings call for re-evaluation of forensic methods and legal regulations for newly identified L. williamsii specimens.