Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 1, 1986
David E. Nichols
568 citations
MDMA, MBDB, and classic hallucinogens have distinct mechanisms of action. MDMA and MBDB produce a unique psychological profile characterized by enhanced empathy and emotional openness, differing from both stimulants and hallucinogens. This profile defines a new therapeutic class called entactogens. The paper argues that entactogens, by their specific neurochemical effects, offer potential for psychotherapy distinct from that of classic hallucinogens or amphetamines.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 1, 1986
George Greer, Requa Tolbert
420 citations
In a clinical setting, individuals who took MDMA reported predominantly positive subjective effects, including enhanced communication, emotional openness, and introspection, with minimal adverse reactions. The drug appeared to facilitate therapeutic processes by reducing fear and defensiveness. Some participants experienced transient anxiety or discomfort, but overall the experience was described as valuable and conducive to personal insight. The authors suggest that MDMA may have potential as an adjunct to psychotherapy when used under controlled conditions.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
June 1, 1997
Evgeny Krupitsky, A. Y. Grinenko
241 citations
Adding ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT) to standard alcoholism treatment substantially improved long-term abstinence rates. In a controlled clinical trial, 65.8% of alcoholic patients (73 out of 111) who received KPT remained totally abstinent for more than one year, compared to 24% (24 out of 100) in the conventional treatment control group. Psychological changes included harmonization of personality profiles on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, positive shifts in unconscious self-concept and emotional attitudes, and increased spiritual development, all favoring a sober lifestyle. Biochemical evidence indicated KPT affects monoaminergic and opioidergic neurotransmitter systems involved in alcohol dependence. EEG analysis showed increased theta activity in cerebrocortical regions, suggesting reinforced limbic-cortex interaction during sessions.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 1, 1986
Alexander T. Shulgin
234 citations
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) is a synthetic compound first developed in 1912 by the German pharmaceutical company Merck. Its chemical structure combines features of methamphetamine and mescaline, placing it within the phenethylamine class. The paper traces the historical background of MDMA, describing its initial synthesis, its later emergence as a recreational drug known as ecstasy, and its chemical properties. It explains the molecule's structure, its relationship to other amphetamine derivatives, and how its chemical composition influences its psychoactive effects. The work provides a foundational overview of MDMA's chemistry and historical context, serving as an introduction to the substance for a conference on its pharmacological and psychological implications.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 1, 1986
Joseph J. Downing
227 citations
In a controlled study, participants who were older, more educated, and more experienced with drugs than the general population reported benefiting from MDMA use with no evidence of harm. Moderate biochemical, cardiovascular, and neurobehavioral changes peaked one to two hours after ingestion and returned to predrug levels within 24 hours. No psychological or physiological damage was observed during the study or a three-month follow-up. The findings support the impression that MDMA is reasonably safe, produces positive mood changes, and shows no evidence of abuse when used sparingly. However, the authors caution that long-term toxicity cannot be assessed from a 24-hour study and three-month blood cytology, and insufficient evidence exists to accurately judge the drug's potential harm or benefit.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
March 15, 2019
207 citations
Ketamine, the only legal psychedelic medicine for mental health, is typically given intravenously for treatment-resistant depression without psychotherapy, viewing its psychedelic effects as side effects. The authors argue it can benefit a wider range of patients when combined with psychotherapy, using its psychedelic properties without IV access, and its safety supports office or supervised at-home use. They describe Ketamine Assisted Psychotherapy (KAP) as a tailored method and present demographic and outcome data from 235 patients. Findings suggest KAP effectively decreases depression and anxiety in private practice, especially for older patients and those with severe symptoms.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
June 12, 2020
Jason B. Luoma, Christina Chwyl, Geoff J. Bathje et al.
206 citations
Placebo-controlled clinical trials of psychedelic-assisted therapy for mental health conditions have resumed after a two-decade pause. Nine randomized, placebo-controlled trials published since 1994 examined psilocybin, LSD, ayahuasca, and MDMA. A significant mean between-groups effect size of 1.21 (Hedges g) was found, larger than typical effects for psychopharmacological or psychotherapy interventions. Effects were generally maintained at follow-up in the three studies that maintained a placebo control. Analyses support efficacy across post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety/depression associated with a life-threatening illness, unipolar depression, and social anxiety among autistic adults. Larger trials with more diverse samples are needed to examine moderators and mediators and long-term effects.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
September 1, 2008
José Carlos Bouso, Rick Doblin, Magı́ Farré et al.
206 citations
In a small, prematurely terminated study, six women with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) from sexual assault received low doses (50–75 mg) of MDMA during psychotherapy. The treatment was psychologically and physiologically safe for all participants. The study was originally planned for 29 subjects but closed early due to political pressures. The authors present these preliminary results and call for future research with larger samples and higher doses to better assess MDMA's safety and efficacy for PTSD.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
December 1, 1998
George R. Greer, Requa Tolbert
187 citations
A therapeutic method using MDMA emphasizes careful attention to the mental state of both therapists and clients and the session environment. The therapists believed MDMA reduces fear responses to emotional threats, helping clients reframe past experiences in their current lives. Clients were screened and prepared until they had a clear purpose and willingness to experience anything that might happen. Medical contraindications were based on MDMA's sympathomimetic effects, and those with serious psychiatric impairments were excluded. Doses of 75-150 mg, with an optional 50 mg later, were given; clients then lay down with eyeshades and headphones listening to music during the peak effect.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
February 26, 2019
Natasha L. Mason, Elisabeth Mischler, Malin V. Uthaug et al.
176 citations
A single dose of psilocybin, given in a retreat setting, may boost creative thinking, empathy, and well-being for at least a week. The morning after use, divergent thinking and emotional empathy improved; seven days later, convergent thinking, certain types of emotional empathy, and life satisfaction remained enhanced. Changes in empathy were linked to changes in well-being. These sub-acute effects outlast acute intoxication and may help explain psilocybin's potential as a treatment for conditions like depression, where social interaction and well-being are impaired.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
March 1, 2007
Evgeny Krupitsky, Andrei M. Burakov, I. V. Dunaevsky et al.
176 citations
People with heroin dependence who received three sessions of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy (KPT) were more likely to remain abstinent at one-year follow-up than those who received only one session. In a randomized trial, 59 detoxified inpatients first received a KPT session before discharge, then were assigned to either two additional monthly KPT sessions plus counseling or two monthly counseling sessions alone. At one year, 50% (13 of 26) of the multiple-session group stayed abstinent, compared to 22.2% (6 of 27) of the single-session group. No differences emerged between groups in depression, anxiety, craving for heroin, or understanding of life meaning. Three KPT sessions appear more effective than one for promoting abstinence.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
June 1, 2005
Michael Winkelman
156 citations
Westerners who travel to the Amazon to drink ayahuasca are motivated not by drug tourism but by desires for spiritual connection, emotional healing, and personal self-awareness. Interviews with participants at an ayahuasca retreat revealed that their principal motivations included seeking spiritual relations, personal spiritual development, and contact with sacred nature, God, spirits, and plant energies. The perceived benefits centered on increased self-awareness, insights, access to deeper levels of the self, enhanced personal development, and a sense of personal direction in life. These findings point to transpersonal concerns rather than recreational drug use.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
January 1, 2014
Anja Loizaga-Velder, Rolf Verres
154 citations
Ayahuasca, an Amazonian psychedelic plant compound, may serve as a valuable therapeutic tool for treating substance dependencies. Interviews with 13 therapists (four indigenous healers and nine Western mental health professionals), two expert researchers, and 14 individuals who underwent ayahuasca-assisted therapy for addictions in South America suggest that, in carefully structured settings, ayahuasca can catalyze neurobiological and psychological processes supporting recovery and relapse prevention. Treatment outcomes are influenced by multiple variables, and the study discusses ritual transfer and strategies for minimizing undesired side-effects.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
December 1, 1998
Ralph Metzner
140 citations
Psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy and indigenous shamanic healing both use psychoactive substances for healing and gaining knowledge, but they rest on fundamentally different worldviews. Four paradigms are reviewed: standard psychedelic psychotherapy, where the drug amplifies internal self-analysis; shamanic rituals, where the healer takes the medicine to 'see' causes of illness; syncretic folk religious ceremonies focused on community bonding; and hybrid shamanic therapeutic rituals combining elements of both. The shamanic worldview diverges radically from the Western one in two ways: the perception of multiple realities accessible in expanded states of consciousness, and the belief that spirits encountered in dreams and visions are as real as the physical organism.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
July 1, 2011
Levente Móró, Katalin Simon, Imre Bárd et al.
138 citations
People use psychoactive drugs in many ways, but most research focuses on problematic use, leaving nonproblematic use poorly understood. Natural psychedelics like mescaline and psilocybin have historically been used in spiritual and self-enhancement contexts. In a survey of 667 psychedelic users, other drug users, and nonusers, those who used psychedelics to gain self-knowledge reported fewer drug-related problems and scored higher on measures of coping and spirituality. Although spirituality is a vague term, a spiritually-oriented approach to drug use may protect against problems. The authors suggest that using psychedelics for self-knowledge could serve as a training ground for personal growth, but more qualitative research is needed to confirm long-term benefits.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
April 1, 1999
Jonathan Ott
136 citations
Eight self-experimenters confirmed the 1967 Holmstedt-Lindgren hypothesis: oral N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) becomes psychoactive when ingested alongside beta-carbolines like harmine because the beta-carbolines inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO). The report summarizes roughly 70 bioassays of pharmahuasca—capsules containing crystalline DMT plus harmine, and other tryptamine–beta-carboline combinations—and reviews the relevant literature. The findings support the mechanism underlying the ayahuasca effect, where MAO inhibition enables DMT's oral activity.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
December 1, 1998
James C. Callaway, Charles S. Grob
134 citations
The Amazonian psychoactive beverage ayahuasca may dangerously interact with SSRI antidepressants. Its harmala alkaloids inhibit monoamine oxidase, and combining them with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors can trigger serotonin syndrome, a potentially life-threatening condition. Caution is advised when using ayahuasca alongside certain pharmaceutical drugs.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
September 12, 2017
Adèle Lafrance, Anja Loizaga-Velder, Jenna Fletcher et al.
126 citations
Ayahuasca, a psychoactive plant-based tea used by Amazonian indigenous groups, may help heal eating disorders (EDs). In interviews with 16 people previously diagnosed with an ED, those who drank ayahuasca in a ceremonial setting reported reduced or stopped ED and mental health symptoms, shifts in body perception, and valued the ceremonial context and after-care. The preparatory diet sometimes triggered familiar concerns, but the ayahuasca purge did not trigger ED behaviors. The findings suggest ayahuasca warrants further research as a treatment for EDs.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 1, 1986
John Buffum, Charles Moser
122 citations
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), also known as Ecstasy, can produce distinct effects on human sexual function, including increased tactile sensitivity, enhanced emotional intimacy, and altered perceptions of sexual arousal. Some users report heightened pleasure and closeness during sexual activity, while others experience difficulty achieving orgasm or maintaining erections. The substance appears to facilitate communication and emotional bonding between partners, which may enhance sexual experiences for some individuals. The authors describe these effects based on clinical observations and user reports, noting that MDMA's influence on sexual function varies widely among individuals and depends on dosage, setting, and psychological state.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 1, 1986
Ronald K. Siegel
122 citations
MDMA, also known as Ecstasy, is a psychoactive drug that has been used nonmedically, leading to intoxication. The paper describes patterns of nonmedical use and the effects of intoxication, including psychological and physiological symptoms reported by users. It notes that acute intoxication can produce feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and emotional openness, but also adverse effects such as anxiety, confusion, and physical symptoms like jaw clenching and increased heart rate. The text emphasizes that nonmedical use carries risks, including potential for psychological distress and physical harm, and calls for awareness of these dangers in the context of emerging recreational use.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 24, 2019
Toby Lea, Nicole Amada, Henrik Jungaberle
121 citations
People are self-administering very low doses of psychedelic drugs, known as microdosing, to improve mental health, wellbeing, and cognitive function, but little research has been conducted. A content analysis of Reddit discussions examined motivations, dosing practices, and perceived benefits and limitations. Motivations included managing mental health issues, improving psychosocial wellbeing, and cognitive enhancement. Self-reported benefits included cognitive and creative enhancement, reduced depression and anxiety, enhanced self-insight, improved mood, and better social interactions. Limitations included dosing problems, adverse physical effects, taking illegal substances, limited or no improvement, increased anxiety, and concerns about dependence. Standard doses in therapeutic settings show potential for treating mental health conditions, but clinical research on microdosing is needed.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
June 1, 2005
Paulo César Ribeiro Barbosa, Joel Sales Giglio, Paulo Dalgalarrondo
121 citations
After first-time ritual use of ayahuasca in the Santo Daime and União do Vegetal religious groups, participants reported predominantly positive expectations beforehand. The most salient altered-state experiences included visual phenomena, a sense of the numinous, peacefulness, insights, and some distressing reactions. In the Santo Daime group, minor psychiatric symptoms significantly reduced. Both groups reported behavioral changes toward assertiveness, serenity, and vivacity or joy. Findings are discussed in terms of set and setting, suggestibility, and ayahuasca's unique effects.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
March 15, 2019
Alexander Trope, B. Anderson, Andrew R. Hooker et al.
113 citations
A systematic review of English- and Spanish-language publications identified experimental studies of psychedelic-assisted group therapy, an area overlooked by prior reviews that focused on individual psychotherapy. The review characterizes these studies by clinical approach, experimental method, and outcomes. It aims to generate hypotheses for future research on psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy, group process, and interpersonal functioning, given renewed clinical interest in psychedelic medicines.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
January 23, 2020
Lindsay P. Cameron, Angela Nazarian, David E. Olson
112 citations
A survey of 2,347 people found that psychedelic microdosing—taking sub-hallucinogenic doses on a chronic schedule—is relatively common, with 17% of respondents having tried it. Microdosers reported that the practice subjectively improved their mood, decreased anxiety, and enhanced memory, attention, and sociability. The most common reasons for quitting were the risks of taking an illegal substance (24.28%) and difficulty obtaining psychedelic compounds (22.63%). The findings suggest microdosing is associated with a broad range of self-reported socio-affective, cognitive, and physical outcomes.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
October 20, 2015
Veronika Kavenská, Hana Simonová
109 citations
Foreigners travel to South America for ayahuasca experiences driven by curiosity, a desire to treat mental health problems, a need for self-knowledge, interest in psychedelic medicine, spiritual development, and finding direction in life. Participants reported benefits such as self-knowledge, improved self-relation, spiritual growth, better interpersonal relations, overcoming mental and physical issues, and gaining new life perspectives. Potential risks included distrust in the shaman or organizer, inaccurate information, and exposure to dangerous situations. Personality assessments of 77 participants revealed scores significantly above the norm on intuition, optimism, ambition, charm, and helpfulness, and significantly lower on distrust and quietness.