Journal of Analytical Toxicology
October 1, 1996
H. J. Helmlin, K. Bracher, Daniel Bourquin et al.
160 citations
MDMA (Ecstasy) is a widely abused illicit drug at European all-night dance parties. Analytical methods were established to detect MDMA and its metabolites (HMMA, HHMA, MDA, HMA, HHA) in plasma and urine. Plasma and urine samples from two participants in a controlled clinical study were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. After a single oral dose of 1.5 mg/kg MDMA, peak plasma levels of 331 ng/mL MDMA occurred at 2 hours, and 15 ng/mL MDA at 6.3 hours. Peak urine MDMA concentration was 28.1 micrograms/mL at 21.5 hours. Conjugated HMMA and HHMA are the main urinary metabolites.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
October 1, 1996
J. C. Callaway, Lionel P. Raymon, William Lee Hearn et al.
158 citations
After ritual ingestion of ayahuasca, the highest plasma concentrations in 15 healthy male volunteers were 222.3 ng/mL for harmine, 134.5 ng/mL for tetrahydroharmine, and 9.4 ng/mL for harmaline, with N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) also quantitated. Harmala alkaloids were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, achieving limits of quantitation below 2 ng/mL; DMT was measured by gas chromatography with nitrogen-phosphorus detection. Recovery was quantitative for all analytes. These are the first reported measurements of DMT and harmala alkaloids in human plasma following ritual ayahuasca ingestion. The methods may apply to other biological matrices.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
March 4, 2015
Nathalie A. Desrosiers, Johannes G. Ramaekers, Émeline Chauchard et al.
136 citations
THC, the main psychoactive compound in cannabis, impairs psychomotor performance, cognition, and driving ability. Occasional cannabis smokers showed significantly more difficulty compensating for tracking error and greater decline in divided attention performance than frequent smokers after smoking one 6.8% THC cigarette. No differences between groups were found on working memory or risk-taking tasks. The results suggest that frequent users develop some tolerance to psychomotor impairment, with implications for driving under the influence cases.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
April 1, 2002
Nieves Pizarro, Jordi Ortuño, Mercè Farré et al.
113 citations
A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method simultaneously measured MDMA and its metabolites MDA, HMMA, and HMA in plasma and urine from healthy volunteers given 100 mg of MDMA. Samples were hydrolyzed, extracted with solid-phase columns, and analyzed as trifluoroacyl derivatives. Linear calibration covered plasma and urine ranges of 25–400 ng/mL and 250–2000 ng/mL for MDMA and HMMA, and 2.5–40 ng/mL and 100–1000 ng/mL for MDA and HMA. A capillary electrophoresis method using (2-hydroxy)propyl-beta-cyclodextrin as chiral selector resolved enantiomers without derivatization, with linear ranges for each enantiomer of MDMA, MDA, and HMMA. Stereoselective disposition of MDMA and MDA was confirmed, while HMMA showed an enantiomer ratio near 1 and constant over time, contradicting MDMA findings.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
October 1, 2001
James C. Kraner, Damon Mccoy, Mark A. Evans et al.
89 citations
Recreational use of MDMA (Ecstasy) has risen, especially among young people at raves. Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA), structurally and pharmacologically similar to MDMA but a more potent central stimulant affecting serotonin, has caused fatalities in Australia and now three in the midwestern United States. The decedents—two males aged 19 and 24 and a female aged 18—believed they were ingesting MDMA but had postmortem blood PMA concentrations of 1.07, 0.60, and 1.90 mg/L, with no MDMA detected. Symptoms included agitation, bruxism, severe hyperthermia, convulsions, and hemorrhage. PMA is metabolized by cytochrome P450 2D6, which is genetically polymorphic; slow metabolizers may have higher peak blood concentrations. The Marquis Test can distinguish PMA from MDMA: MDMA yields dark purple, PMA no color change. PMA pills often bear a Mitsubishi symbol.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
March 1, 2000
M Bogusz, Klaus-Dieter Krüger, R. D. Maier
79 citations
A method using liquid chromatography coupled with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry (LC-APCI-MS) can separate and identify a wide range of phenethylamines, including amphetamine, methamphetamine, and several designer drugs (MDA, MDEA, MDMA, MBDB, BDMPEA), as well as other related compounds like ephedrine and cathinone, from human serum. The drugs are extracted via solid-phase extraction and then analyzed in a single run. The technique provides clear differentiation between all tested drugs, with detection limits between 1 and 5 micrograms per liter of serum and recoveries ranging from 58 to 96%. The method is suitable for routine forensic toxicology analysis of these substances.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
January 1, 1996
Jianyi Cai, Jack D. Henion
71 citations
The in vitro metabolism of LSD by human liver microsomes was investigated using tandem mass spectrometry, high-performance liquid chromatography, and capillary electrophoresis. Two new metabolites, lysergic acid ethylamide (LAE) and 2-oxo-LSD, were positively identified by comparison with reference standards. Other detected metabolites included mono- and trioxylated forms. The major metabolic route is deethylation. In human urine specimens from LSD users, iso-LSD was present at the highest concentration, followed by nor-LSD and isonor-LSD, with low levels of LAE and iso-LAE also found.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
October 1, 1999
Dale K. Hensley, John T. Cody
70 citations
A new method simultaneously measures the ratio of l- and d-enantiomers of amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDA, MDMA, and MDEA in urine. The assay uses liquid-liquid extraction, derivatization with l-TPC, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. It provides accurate results for amphetamine and methamphetamine at concentrations of 10 ng/mL or higher and for MDA, MDMA, and MDEA at 25 ng/mL or higher. In eight subjects from a controlled MDMA study, the percentage of l-MDMA was initially greater and increased over time. For the metabolite MDA, the d-enantiomer initially dominated, but the l-enantiomer proportion gradually increased, exceeding the d-enantiomer within 36 hours postdose.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
April 20, 2022
Amanda L A Mohr, Barry K. Logan, Melissa F. Fogarty et al.
66 citations
A critical review of published case reports from January 2017 through December 2020 identified 1,319 cases of adverse events associated with novel psychoactive substances (NPS), including 378 overdose fatalities, 771 cases requiring clinical treatment or hospitalization, and 170 cases of driving under the influence. The review covers chemistry, pharmacology, user profiles, and clinical symptoms for over 60 NPS, with 50 substances reported for the first time compared to the previous four years. Cases span synthetic cannabinoids, NPS stimulants, hallucinogens, benzodiazepines, and opioids. The findings aim to improve awareness and characterization of emerging international drug threats.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 1, 2003
Simona Pichini, M.d. Sánchez Navarro, Roberta Pacifici et al.
66 citations
After a single 100-mg dose of MDMA, the drug appears in sweat within 1.5 hours and peaks at 24 hours, but the amount varies up to 30-fold between individuals, ranging from 3.2 to 1326.1 ng per patch. Only traces of the metabolite MDA are detected. An onsite sweat strip test is positive at 1.5 hours, though 18% false-negative results occur in the first 6 hours. Sweat patch and onsite strip testing offer noninvasive ways to monitor MDMA use.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
November 1, 2003
Frank T. Peters, Nele Samyn, Martin Wahl et al.
65 citations
The pharmacological effects of amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDA, MDMA, and MDEA depend on their mirror-image molecular forms (enantiomers), which differ in how they act in the body. Analysis of plasma from clinical toxicology cases and from drivers suspected of drug impairment showed that concentrations of most enantiomers were lower in routine screening samples than in intoxication or driving-under-the-influence cases. Drivers under the influence had higher levels of both amphetamine enantiomers than intoxicated patients. Differences in the ratio of R to S enantiomers for several drugs between groups suggest these ratios can help distinguish recent from past use. In one MDMA poisoning, the R form cleared more slowly (half-life 6.0 hours) than the S form (4.1 hours), and the ratio of R to S rose over time.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 1, 2005
Diane M. Boland, Wilmo Andollo, George W. Hime et al.
62 citations
Alpha-methyltryptamine (AMT), an indole analogue of amphetamine originally investigated as an antidepressant and monoamine oxidase inhibitor, caused the first known death in the United States when a young college student in Miami-Dade County died after ingesting the drug. The student told his roommate he was taking hallucinating drugs and had discovered the secret of the universe; about 12 hours later he was found unresponsive in bed with an empty 1-gram vial of AMT. Postmortem blood showed 2.0 mg/L of AMT, the liver contained 24.7 mg/kg, and the brain contained 7.8 mg/kg. AMT was emergency-scheduled as a Schedule 1 controlled substance shortly after this death.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
January 1, 1998
Olof Beck, Anders Helander, Christine Karlson-Stiber et al.
58 citations
Mushrooms containing psilocybin are often used for intentional intoxication, sometimes leading to adverse reactions with tachycardia that psilocybin alone does not explain. This study detected phenylethylamine in Psilocybe semilanceata using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and found its amount varies more than psilocybin. The highest phenylethylamine level, 146 micrograms per gram wet weight, came from mushrooms involved in a case where three young men were hospitalized. Comparing symptoms from magic mushroom intoxication with those from pure psilocybin or phenylethylamine suggests phenylethylamine may contribute to adverse reactions.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
October 1, 2009
T. T. Abraham, Allan J. Barnes, Richie H. Lowe et al.
56 citations
After a single oral dose of MDMA (ecstasy), the drug and its metabolites are excreted in urine over an extended period, with the metabolite HMMA detectable longer than MDMA itself. In a double-blind study, healthy adult MDMA users received placebo, 1.0 mg/kg, or 1.6 mg/kg doses. From 916 urine specimens provided by 16 participants, median peak concentrations after the higher dose were 21,470 ng/mL for MDMA and 20,793 ng/mL for HMMA, with HMMA's last detection exceeding MDMA's by over 33 hours. In the first 24 hours, 30.2-34.3% of total urinary excretion occurred. Including HMMA in urine testing improves detection of MDMA exposure but requires hydrolysis of the sample.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
January 1, 1988
Paula Francom, David M. Andrenyak, Hyun Kyoon Lim et al.
55 citations
A method detects LSD in urine at concentrations as low as 0.5 ng/mL. After adding a deuterium-labeled internal standard, LSD is extracted from urine at pH 8 using n-butyl chloride, then converted to a trimethylsilyl derivative and measured by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry with selected ion monitoring. The procedure tracked LSD concentrations in urine for eight hours after two volunteers each took 70.5 micrograms of LSD orally. Results are compared with those from radioimmunoassay and high-performance liquid chromatography. The report also includes data on LSD stability in urine.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
February 19, 2015
Simon Elliott, Simon D. Brandt, Jason Wallach et al.
54 citations
2-Methoxydiphenidine (2-MXP), a dissociative research chemical sold as an alternative to methoxetamine and ketamine, was detected in post-mortem blood and urine from three fatalities. Femoral blood concentrations were 24.0, 2.0, and 1.36 mg/L; the lowest case had an alternative cause of death. Therapeutic levels of prescription drugs were also present. Metabolites included hydroxy-2-MXP (with hydroxylation on the piperidine ring), O-desmethyl-2-MXP, and hydroxylated O-desmethyl-2-MXP. Diphenidine and hydroxy-diphenidine were detected, but it was unclear if they came from 2-MXP or separate diphenidine use. These are the first published fatalities involving 2-MXP, providing analytical data for forensic toxicologists.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
January 1, 1993
John T. Cody, R H Schwarzhoff
54 citations
Two commercial immunoassay reagents, Abbott's Amphetamine/Methamphetamine II and Amphetamine Class, were tested for their ability to detect a wide range of amphetamine-related compounds, including stereoisomers, metabolites, and illicit analogues such as MDMA, MDA, and mescaline, at concentrations from 100 to 100,000 ng/mL. The Amphetamine/Methamphetamine II reagent showed better overall performance, especially for detecting over-the-counter medications, while the Amphetamine Class reagent did not improve detection of amphetamine, methamphetamine, or illicit analogues. Some illicit analogues were reliably detected, but many others were not. The Amphetamine Class reagents are a poor choice unless detecting over-the-counter compounds is specifically needed.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 1, 2005
Simon Elliott
52 citations
MDMA and its metabolite MDA show postmortem redistribution, meaning concentrations measured after death are often higher than those taken just before death. In five hospital fatalities with both antemortem and postmortem blood samples, postmortem MDMA concentrations ranged from 0.47 to 28.39 mg/L compared to antemortem levels of 0.55 to 4.33 mg/L. Postmortem-to-antemortem ratios ranged from 1.1 to 6.6 for MDMA and 1.5 to 13.3 for MDA. Central sites like the heart had much higher concentrations than peripheral sites like the femoral vein. Thus, postmortem blood levels, even from peripheral sites, are not directly comparable to antemortem findings near death.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
May 1, 2007
Luigino G. Apollonio, Ian R. Whittall, Dennis J. Pianca et al.
51 citations
Bio-Quant Direct ELISA kits for amphetamine and methamphetamine can reliably detect these drugs in blood, urine, and saliva down to 3 ng/mL in buffer and 6 ng/mL in biological matrices. The amphetamine kit also detects MDA (282% cross-reactivity), PMA (265%), 4-MTA (280%), and phentermine (61%). The methamphetamine kit cross-reacts with MDMA (73%), MDEA (18%), pseudoephedrine (19%), MBDB (8%), and ephedrine (9%). Both kits are fast and accurate for routine toxicological screening.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 16, 2018
Alex J. Krotulski, Amanda L A Mohr, Melissa F. Fogarty et al.
50 citations
Among people attending electronic dance music festivals, self-reported use of Ecstasy, Molly, or MDMA often does not match what is actually in their system. Over four years, oral fluid from 223 participants who said they had recently used one or more of those terms was tested. Only 54.3% had MDMA alone; 29.6% tested positive for a novel stimulant instead. Most participants (91%) used only one term, with Molly the most common (60.6%), followed by MDMA (27.1%) and Ecstasy (12.3%). The findings indicate that the terms Ecstasy, Molly, and MDMA are not used interchangeably or accurately, and that users may unknowingly consume novel psychoactive substances.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
March 1, 2001
Roberta Pacifici, Magı́ Farré, Simona Pichini et al.
50 citations
After a single 100 mg oral dose of MDMA, the Drugwipe immunochemical strip test detected the drug in sweat from two volunteers as early as 2 hours and up to 12 hours later. However, one volunteer showed a faint positive result before dosing, when plasma and urine were negative, and this persisted beyond 48 hours. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry measured peak plasma concentrations of MDMA and its metabolite HMMA at 2-4 hours, with levels above 20 ng/mL and 40 ng/mL respectively still present at 24 hours. Urine remained positive for both substances over 48 hours. These results suggest sweat testing with Drugwipe may be useful for monitoring MDMA use.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
October 1, 1998
Zhi Li, A. J. Mcnally, Honggang Wang et al.
50 citations
LSD in pooled urine is stable for up to 4 weeks at 25 degrees C in the dark, with no significant loss. At 37 degrees C, a 30% loss occurred after 4 weeks, and up to 40% at 45 degrees C. Amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers preserved LSD concentration under any light conditions; stability in transparent containers depended on distance from light source, wavelength, exposure time, and intensity. Prolonged heat in alkaline pH converted 10 to 15% of LSD to iso-LSD; under acidic conditions, less than 5% converted. Trace metal ions catalyzed decomposition, preventable by adding EDTA. Proper storage is essential for accurate analytical testing.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
November 1, 1996
Gary W. Kunsman, Barry Levine, James J. Kuhlman et al.
48 citations
Urine specimens from 34 active-duty U.S. Army personnel who tested positive for amphetamines were reanalyzed. All samples contained both MDMA (ecstasy) and its metabolite MDA. MDMA concentrations ranged from 0.38 to 96.2 mg/L (mean 13.4 mg/L), and MDA concentrations ranged from 0.15 to 8.6 mg/L (mean 1.6 mg/L). The average ratio of MDA to MDMA was 0.15, similar to the ratio of amphetamine to methamphetamine (0.10). The presence of MDA at about 10–15% of the MDMA concentration is consistent with MDMA metabolism alone, suggesting use of only MDMA rather than combined use of both drugs.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
March 1, 2002
Els A. de Letter, Karine M. Clauwaert, Willy E. Lambert et al.
47 citations
In a fatal overdose of MDMA (ecstasy) and its metabolite MDA, concentrations varied widely across different body sites. Central blood samples (heart and great vessels) showed different levels than peripheral blood (subclavian and femoral). High levels were found in liver, lungs, and kidneys, while vitreous humor also contained MDMA, suggesting it could be used when blood is unavailable. The findings confirm that peripheral vein blood is best for accurate measurement, and that postmortem redistribution must be considered when interpreting toxicology results from other sites.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
September 1, 2004
Bindu D. Paul, John F. Jemionek, David Lesser et al.
46 citations
A new gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method using (R)-(-)-alpha-methoxy-alpha-(trifluoromethyl)phenylacetyl chloride (MTPA) as a chiral derivatizing agent avoids racemization problems seen with the standard reagent (S)-(-)-trifluoroacetylprolyl chloride (TPC). The MTPA method reliably separates the (R)-(-)- and (S)-(+)-isomers of methamphetamine, amphetamine, MDA, MDMA, and MDEA. In 91% of methamphetamine-positive urine specimens, only the (S)-(+)-isomer—indicative of illicit use—was detected. For MDMA-positive specimens, (R)-(-)-isomer concentrations exceeded (S)-(+)-isomer, suggesting longer bodily retention of the (R)-(-)-form. Quantitation was linear over 25–10,000 ng/mL for most drugs, with correlation coefficients >0.996 and precision within ±11% at 500 ng/mL. The single MTPA method can replace two separate GC-MS tests needed to confirm illicit (S)-(+)-amphetamine and methamphetamine use.